E1vir111e1111
PoUulion
Cours

Evan C. Birchard

ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT
IMPERIAL OIL LIMITED

 foLpub-'3e--4

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION COURSE

Evan C. Birchard

Environmental
Imperial

Protection

Department

Oil Limited

 - i -

"The

greatest

problem

facing

man today

is

the

ecological

of

harmonious

to

the

of

which

one
adjustment

ecosystem
he

is

a part~"

 - ii

-

CONTENTS

PAGE
PREFACE

iv

INTRODUCTION

1

UNPOLLUTED ENVIRONMENT
Terminology

2

Individual

Concept

3

Population

Concept

3

Community

Concept

13

Ecosystem

Concept

18

Ecological

Cycle

of

the

Ocean

25

Eutrophication
Summary

to

28

Unpolluted

Environment

30

POLLUTED ENVIRONMENT
Terminology

34

Tolerability

35

Individual

- Lethal

&

Sublethal

37

Population

44

Community

46

Ecosystem

47

Movement

of

Ecological
Cultural
Lake

a Pollutant
Cycle

Through
of

the

Ocean

Eutrophication

50
53

Erie

Summary

the

54

to

Polluted

Environment

57

 - iv -

PREFACE

There
deterioration

today

of our

genuine,

at other

to separate
broad

is

a great

environment.

times

fact

deal

it

is

of the

about

In some cases

exaggerated

from fiction,it

understanding

of concern

is

concern

or untrue.

necessary

principles

the

the
is

In order

to first

and processes

have a
operating

in an environment.

The "Environmental
following

pages,

Imperial

Oil

standing

of the

Pollution

was originally

personnel

prepared

across

environment

Course"

Canada,
and the

presented

for,

on the

and presented

to add to their
effects

to

under-

of pollution

on the

environment.

Because
wide field

detail

to merely

draw its

generally

Imperial

Oil

111 St.

Clair

Toronto

195,

was not possible
specific

topics.

with

the

hope of providing

tends

the

examples
principles

of environment

Limited

Ave. West
Canada

the

underlying

Protection

of the

to be geared

Department

course,

to deal

surface

to any type

Environmental

of the

the

But although

water,

nature

touch

content

environment.

it

with

outline,

The course

towards

general

of coverage,

and in great
intent

of the

extensively

Rather,

it

subject

content,

was the

an overall

heavily
are

and its

to the

picture.
water

predominantly

themselves
- aquatic

and

oriented

apply

or terrestrial.

 - 1 -

INTRODUCTION

Pollution

effects

its

on living

pollution

should

pollution

however,

standards,
priority.

with

of biological
into

the

Secondly,
time
ground
This

that

there

pollution

environment
or gross

problem

without

or in low

this

exclusion

of pollution.

can usually

To

be transformed

to use and express .
is often

considere

d

to expr e ss in a meaningf ul
of basic

to deal
fully

b i ological

with

operate

lead

to misinterpretation,

bac k-

pollution.

a specific

understanding

that

enviro-

the underlying

in an unpolluted

and polluted
oversimplification,

error.

The content
set

up so that,

the

biological

environment,
ecosystem

in the

first

including
concepts.

environment,
integration.

the

proceed

and see the
The third

assess ing the effects
with

section,

operating

This

and their

d ea l s br ie fly

of "Environmental

principles

we can then

s ystems,

for

of

and physical

peopl e con c ern ed with

attempting

can often

omitted

data

a lack

e , for

principles

either

and difficult

is often

of

Most studies

chemical

easy

of biological

expensive,

is un f ortunat

biological

of

are

exp e ri en ce among t he very

nmental

which

data

the assessment

one.

the effects

and physical

in terms of

toward

aspects

when assessing

the collection
Thirdly,

sense

a number of reasons

expressions

consuming,

manner.

are

defined

a biological

biological

chemical

numerical

In this

have been oriented

data

with,

organisms.

be primarily

There
begin

may be operationally

in a natural,

is designed

effects

importance

second

section

deals

with

as a source

of pollution.
man and his

to provide

with

community,
a baseline

and

from

on a polluted
on these

four

levels

biological

informati

of biological

dat a for

The fourth

environment.

is

unpolluted

population,

of pollution

section

Course"

we may become familiar

individual,

to the

Pollution

concluding

section

on

 -

2 -

UNPOLLUTED ENVIRONMENT

TERMINOLOGY

The relationship
is

termed

an ecological

of

the

to

a physical

organism.

between

i.e.

relationships

inorganic

and

physical

factors

etc.

Within

and

or

materials
such
this

microbes,
components

components

in

abiotic

The abiotic
system,

organisms

interacting

around

them

with

or

which

they

an environment

abstract
knowledge

that

in
of

affect

concept

the

sense

the

of
of

plus

and

also

called
all

and

the

exists

the
of

and

all

environment.
the

abiotic

comprise
is

the

external
These

of

of

influences
influences
Used

influences

in

its

and

an organism.

an abstraction.

the

an

a community

environment.

development

of

etc.

plants,

the

with

together

external

is

oxygen,

temperature,

interact.

the

spite

dioxide,

include

fashion.

a conceptual
in

relationships

elements

currents,

An ecosystem

an ecosystem

systems.Yet

carbon

another

elements

is

being

refer

in a physical-chemical

components

one

another

life

not

of

Abiotic

there

biotic

collectively

The

real

the

live

proper

ecology

does

place

water,

setting

one

surroundings
the

breakdown

wind,

an ecosystem.

are

conditions

as

biotic

on an ecosystem
context,

the

energy-dependent

and

with

damaged"

setting.

with

a fundamentally

ecological

abiotic

interact

its

commonly

take

as moisture,

is

to

environment.

such

that

The biotic

the

to

ecological

basic

animals

rather

of

a non-living

animal

being

components

the

light,

but

or

or more

"ecology

destruction,

All

a plant

relationship,

The phrase

various

setting,

of

scheme

developed

great

diversity

It

is
from

a

in

types

 -

of ecosystems

- from small

laboratory

to field,

particular

abiotic

are

certain

to large,

and in spite
and biotic

general

recognizable.

3 -

of the

components

structural

The first

terrestrial

to aquatic,

unique

of

in any one ecosystem,

and functional

of these

combinations

attributes

structural

there

that

attributes

are

is the

individual.

INDIVIDUAL CONCEPT

An individual,
role

- that

subjected
result

of producing
to stress

in death

one individual
ecological

are

in turn

a particular
in close

is
is

proximity

from its

with

to each

other,

are

over-all

tend

unstable
to form groups,

of organisms,

of similar

they

in the

and highly

groups

could

As such,

factor

individuals

When a group

that

capabilities.

vulnerable,

other

is constantly

environment

not an important

limitations

combined

has but one ultimate

An individual

a frail,

these

community.

time,

of reproductive

by itself
It

life

offspring.

or a loss

To overcome

which

its

and adversity

system.

entity.

during

to form

individuals

referred

occur

to as a population.

POPULATION CONCEPT

A population
at

a given

locality.

population
different

reproductively

types

of

individuals.

this

is

from all

are

- the

an inherent
the

forces

ability

is

isolated

two opposing

of a population:

species

of potentially

Each individual

is

development
each

a group

that

There

of

is

forces

breeding

a member of a natural
from other

operating

populations

in the

one of these

is

inherent,

to reproduce

at

a given

capacity

for

death.

of the

physical,

individuals

This

chemical

growth

of

and

and characteristic
rate;

opposition
and biological

opposing
co~es
environment

 - 4 -

in which an individual
called

exists.

respectively,
It

environmental

biotic

is

the

sigmoidal
This

in shape,

is followed

slowing
change

When the

in population,

environment.

That

environment
carrying
is

(Fig.

it
is,

capacity

1.

2.

exist,

population

for

an infinite

the

population

off,
limit

If
level

is

is slow.
finally

and there

a

is no net

with

the

surrounding

at which the
referred

to as the

some factor

of the

environment

may result,

so that

'carrying

concepts,

its

that

and then

a limit

reaches

(Fig.

the

period

the

ecological

potential.

growth

an equilibrium

equilibrium

Once a population

biotic
pattern

levels

environment.

most other

of possibilities

rate

e.

that

a growth

increase,

has reached

of the

like

of rapid

the population,

a different

capacity',

a species

follow

has reached
it

are
resistenc

to ensure

The initial

growth

can support

shifted,

1).

by a period

down.

exceeds

typically

forces

and environmental

of the population
never

Populations

two opposing

potential,

role

resistence

These

is

subject

carrying

to change.

capacity

a number

2):

will

maintain

length

itself

at

the

same level

of time.

will

decline

and may eventually

will

fluctuate

succumb

to extinction.
3.

the

population

either

regularly

or

irregularly.

The first
a infinite
supply
removed,

length

of food

is

and where

type,

of time,
unlimited,
all

other

in which
is

rare.
where

a population
It

will

harmful

environmental

maintains

occur
biproducts
factors

only

where

are
remain

itself

for

the

continuously
unaltered.

 -5-

FIGURE
I

POPULATION
IN GROWTHPATTERN
CARRYING
CAPACITY

GROWTH
CURVE
(N)
t

NUMBERS
(N)

TIME (t)
CARRYING
CAPACITY
- THATPOINTIN THEGROWTH
CURVEIN WHICHTHE
POPULATION
IS AT EQUILIBRIUM
WITHTHE
ENVIRONMENT,
RESULTING
IN NONET CHANGE
IN
POPULATION
NUMBERS.

 I
I
I
I
I
I
l

-6-

FIGURE2

UPON
REACHING
ITSCARRYING
CAPACITY
A POPULATION
CAN2
MAINTAIN
CONSTANT
LEVEL

DECLINE

I

l
I

Tl ME

3
FLUCTUATE

 Such

a situation

In nature,
time.

is

different
altered.

In the

second

transmission

an adequate
a point

where

called
will

the

cause

population

threshold
to

of

decline

Many populations
rapid

growth

plants,
felt

and

other

the

overall

processes

tremendous
until

the

quickly

populations

growth

seasonally

nutrients

virtually

dies-off.

Dinobryon,

(Fig.

the

upper

and

an unlimited
in
of

3).

numbers.

algae
it

out

of

is

especially

But

the

of

the

the

case

water

of

area.

is

this

with

with

phenomenon

is

of

seldom
since

undergo

a rapid

to

juncture
the

as

a bloom

the

comes.

quickly

weather

With

golden-brown

-

algae
start

in

no competition,

multiplies
more

and

population

golden-brown

to make an early

it

the

population

environment,

referred

spring

warmer

of offspring,

extinction.

able

nutrients,

ensure

common among the

the

for

when

a

If

to

occurence

At this

algae

competing
the

is

- commonly

But

begin

exhibit

balance

increasing

occurs.

fact

exhausted.

the

supply

extinction

It

and

small

the

characteristically

This
of

too

then

insects.

Such

surfaces

increases

starving

are

of

extinction,

overshadow

Alga

accumulation

in a population.

becomes

until

ecological

being

and propagation

do in

and

food,

always

mating

die-off.

invertebrates,
in

types

rapid

are

of disease,

a decline

successful

continue

of

over

to new and

numbers

scarcity

settings.

changing

subjected

susceptibility

the

of

being

type,

laboratory

constantly

and population

- all

chance

are

continually

stress,

reached

controlled

conditions

overcrowding,

is

number

in

of

metabolites,

point

common only

are

types

of

7 -

environmental

Individuals

ease

-

and

vigourous

and

hardy

algae,

eventually

 -8-

FIGURE
3

POPULATION
GROWTH
CURVEOF GOLDENBROWNALGAE
DINOBRYON
II

II

NUTRIENTS
EXHAUSTED

SPRING
BLOOM

NUMBERS
(N)

FEB.

LARGESCALE
DIE-OFF

MARCH
TIME <MONTHS)

APRIL

 -

The third
usual
are

situation.
often

type,

These

mistaken

a population,

as a sign

that

forces

the

population

then

declines

overshooting

its

for

mark.

the

physical

elements
within

fluctuation.

the

(Fig.

The oceans

several

years

are

fluctuations

of the

changes

in abundance

best

or most accurate

fish

population,

of the

a period

the

catches

production
than

different

by changes

extrinsic

in

factors.
for

will

drastically
that

during

the

time certain

by the

eastern

years

of witnessing

last

fish
manner.

North

gives

in these

to

in a population,

in an extreme

do give

serve

The

American

some indication
waters.

Although

fluctuations

a bench-mark

in a

indication

numbers.

The fluctuations

size

in intensity

factors.

of the mackerel

yearly

continues.

fisheries

of one hundred
method

The

rapidly,

fluctuations

during

of mackerel

fleet

the

for

catch

fishing
not

marine

yet

environmental

may be responsible

intrinsic

changed

the

capacity.

increases

or moderate

known to have fluctuated

in the

carrying

called

when

numbers.

pattern

of irregular

or so,

a high

its

again

itself

called

have not

occur

in whole or in part

population
are

the

environment,

circumstances

hundred

populations

the

with

cyclical

from a commercial

illustrate
4).

of the

These

Data

it

may be extreme

They may be caused

Or conditions
the

growth,

And so the

Fluctuations
and duration.

below

they

overshoots

to reduce

to a level

conditions

rapidly,

faced

population

in that

Fluctuations

very

and is

is the most

significant

of pollution.

capacity,

resistence

of numbers,
are

in numbers

carrying

With suitable

fluctuation

fluctuations

increasing

environments

9 -

of year-classes
in other
year-classes

are

due,

at

least

in part,

in which many more fish

year-classes.
however

The causes
are

difficult

of the

reach

to the
commercial

varying

to ascertain.

success

of

 -10-

FIGURE4

FLUCTUATIONS
IN MACKEREL
CATCH
FROM
. EASTERNCOASTOF NORTHAMERICA
OVERLAST100 YEARS
80
70
en

60

:E

cc

a::

c.:>

_,
_,

0

--=
u...

50
40

0

en
z:

-__,,
-:a:

0

30
20
10
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

 - 11 -

rarely

does

reached.
Since

plenty

unusual

mortality

The critical
the

general

variation
the

Usually

mackerel's

of the

abundance

of plankton

predators,

and an increase

important

factor

insignificant

does

is

in the

Often

number will

the

reduction

subtle,

early

an abrupt

life.

some subtle
stage

of

change

in the

survival

of

in numbers

of

In any case,

and seemingly

can bring

be unjustly

has been

a serious

of food.

environment

size

be an abnormal

Or possibly

very

Very

a sensitive

could

or perhaps

often

year.

not change,

in availability
that

in very

during
it

ocean.

in a population.

in a population

commercial

upon a simultaneous

changes

fluctuation

area,

in the

is dependent

ocean

Possibly

spawning

young fish

after

must arise

development.
in the

spawned every

comes somewhere

environment

temperature

the

occur

point

nature

in the

of eggs are

about

a natural

and unexplained

attributed

drop

to a man-made

pollutant.

The fluctuation
regular

or cyclical.

latitudes

of the

northern

lemmings,

arctic

foxes,

snowy oil,

This

three

notably

There

in a wide-spread

or four

years.

With increasing

disorder,

and just

so great

as to reach

offspring

are

in nervous

plain

produced.

to acceptable

the

of the

results

increase

is particularily

restlessness.

some breaking

in high

birds,

the

salmon.

lemming is perhaps

decline
numbers

in numbers
there

Once the

one or two years

numbers.

With few natural

in these

every

occurs
ulcers,

population

- mating

Within

the most

mechanism

stomach

threshold

to be

mammals such as mice,

is a definite

tension,

appear
true

among gallinaceous

fluctuation

to everyone.

populations

among small

which

corresponding

declined

hemisphere

and among some fish,

example

animals

phenomenon

martens,

The cyclic
familiar

of some animal

a
mental
becomes

ceases

and no

the population
predators,

has
lots

 - 12 -

of

room

the

to

expand

population

triggering

and plenty

soon

overshoots

another

the

fact,

majority

are

the

are

usually

of

population

the

the

result

of

restraints

studies
are

0.1%,
develop

rate,

thus

by conditions

in

all

In
populations

fluctuations

that

follow

are

is

rate

however

outside

the

realm

from

the

99.9%

a seemingly
grow

year
scene

to

99.8%.

adult

a slight

or

biotic

in

potential

Environmental

effect

each

was

lessened,

of

and

Now although
amount,
increased

and

the

also
the

produces
In the
a fairly

The
about

a

first

year

conservative

environmental

the

percent

the

mortality

number
from

studies

maturity).

number.

99.9%,
one

do some year-class

(Year-class

through
year

in

on abundance.

to

a lake.

spawns

fish

full

intending
in

however,

potential

variation

a marked

birth

insignificant
into

even

eggs

biotic

the
the

conservative

the

capacity

reached.

from

a fairly

carrying

population.

You are

in

its
of

seldom

on the

a species

among

following

is

species

interested

or

interplay

may produce

fish

and

birth

factors.

factors

then,

however

on a particular

from

caused

by intrinsic

Ordinarily

check

case.

eggs,which

dropped

again,

are

factors;

nature

resistence

removed

capacity

Irregular

by the

in

some cases

The

a high

fluctuations

factors.

resistence.

In

mortality

is,

a population

a strong

million

was

cyclic

keep

you

number.

regular,

determined

species

the

with

fluctuations
that

a hypothetical

those

carrying

itself;

of

animals

environmental
Consider

size

environmental
and

combined

itself.

is

plants

cyclic

by extrinsic

population

the

its

intrinsic

caused

The

and

of

of

environment,

food,

die-off.

The lemmings
within

of

of

1,000

restraints

mortality
dropped
eggs
the

left
first

only
to
year

the

 - 13 -

to 2,000

the

second

spawned.

Should

or should

the

the

year,

this

occur

percentage

difference

in numbers

the

the

will

be evident,

whose sole

role

Individuals

are

unstable

highly
referred

to add some degree
its

reproductive

together

lake,

evident

the

that

two years

will

steps

not

reducing

so that

seem so great

by that

work

thereby

some change

for

in the

the

when viewing

in the

two

0.1% egg mortality.

a moment, we have looked

environment

and tend

of stability

restraints

adulthood,

to the

is to produce

to clump together

to as populations,

offspring.
into

and populations

individual,

at the

groups.

are

thereby

designed

increasing

potential.

Populations
community.

reach

caused

individual,

are

eggs between

Nevertheless,

our

groups

it's

and developing,

two years

To retrace

These

female

spawned in the

environmental

eventually

year-classes.

year-classes

of surviving

is growing

that

between

adult

female

eggs per

from 99.9% to 99.5%,

many other

as it

number of fish

difference
the

fish

every

~f 1,000

great.

Obviously
the

for

drop

would be exceptionally

against

or an increase

in turn

They do this
- increased

for

tend

the

to group

same reason

together
that

to form a

individuals

group

stability.

COMMUNITYCONCEPT

The plants
an assemblage
tolerable,

in which

continued

does occur,

each

and is provided

requirements.
the

and animals

The presence
life
the

of other

beneficial

living

individual
with

at

least

in any natural

finds
the

the

interactions

environment

form
to be

minimum sustaining

of many populations
populations,

area

are

necessary

and although
outway

the

for

antagonism

unfavourable

 - 14 -

interactions.
plants

Such

and

groups

animals

or populations

inhabiting

a natural

The general

concept

populations

of mutually

adjusted

in

is

an area,

communities

But

their

limits

and

difficulty

is

has

functional

its

environment,

not

clearly

of

clear.

due

the

the

that

a functional
a pond,

of

activities

of

the

or

small

to

such

are

plant

this

and

animal

organisms

the

definite,

In ouher

community

in
are

some instances
fairly

that

of

individuals

island.

an extent

specific

Part

of other

In

in one

of

every

a variety

of
themselves

difficult.

although

entity

a community.

as a number

isolation

a unit.

individuals

community

known as

of mutually-dependent
as

adjusted

maintaining

somewhat

with

as

true

is

community

conceptual

fact

host

area

organisms

is

distinguishable

generally

of

the

interelations

a community

another

to

of mutually

often
limits

as

is

instances,

may overlap

no specific

the

those

margins

of

can

be

set.

Yet
it

is

clear

live

under

lesser

in

that
the

degree

spite

community
conditions

they

its

mentioned

here.

distinguished
habitat
to

any

stream
type

of

all

set

The first

individual
are

other

own unique

conditions

the

is

known

community.

of

of
of

of

area.
types

difficulties

members

dependent

most

unit

the

area,

upon

one

another.

and

communities,
ability

to

to

a greater

concepts,

the

community

concept

terms.

Only

a limited

few will

is

the

and

biotope.

showing

a biotope.

example,

biotopes,

delimiting

common the

the

environment

For

in

in

these

as

in

share

existing

are

As with
developed

of

a mud flat,
each

supports

has
be

Any clearly

uniformity

The term

or

of

principle

may be applied
beach,

desert,

a characteristic

or

 - 15 -

Another
dominant

term used when describing

species.

conspicuous
because

because

it

of the

In many communities

exerts

it

community.

This

of tension

between

ecological

interest,

transition

area,

is referred

Such is

and a stream.

circumstances

one community
resulting

of square

a prairie

community,

The ecotone

occupy

a very

individuals
numbers

Biotopes

area,

and each

species

with

generally

of species

the

ecotone

is

transition

zone

may be a small

marshy

In other

gradually

or small.

such as a lake,

restricted

in each

of unique

In some situations

and the

for

species.
zone

is a situation

way only

community,

to the

other

species.
generally

is usually

supports

or desert,

conditions
few species

rather

inter-related
meagerly

north,

community.

while
river,

others

may

or meadow.

abundance
and little

can also
food,

and relatively

Under more suitable
become

in Canada's

or an ·oceanic

and population

extreme

Some may cover

forest

such as a pond,

The number of species

deep ocean,

members

transition

of sand or rock.

such as a spruce

tundra

may he smaller

the

the

ecotone.

case

may be large

miles,

Others

greatly.

It

is abrupt,

may give

or

in a wide ecotone.

Communities
thousands

the other

describes

the

strip

may be particularly

to as the dominant

communities.

connnunities

may be a narrow

vary

over

and is known as the

or it

community,

influence

adjoining

is

or the most numerous,

term of interest

narrow.

a forest

one species

largest,

species

between

correspondingly
between

the

a controlling

The last

the

is

communities

conditions,
in community

represented.

as

few
large
groups,

 - 16 -

Consider
It

for

example

is a member of a community

zone of the ocean,
the water
because

surface

to the

the

environment.

the

removing

that

the void

filled

of this

caused

overall

ecological

system

So we find
the population
community

is a highly
uniform

present-day
they

communities
remain

stable

is

similar

of

from the
to suggest

are very

such a large
for

disrupt
slight

the
that

will

though

prone

is not

to both

The seeming

static.

stable

unstable,

for

stability

the
in the

are dynamic,

in response

somewhat deceptive,

by not being

is highly

to fluctuation,

Communities

changes.

Thus the

altered.

individual

But it

and function

be quickly

requirements.

the

entity.

number of

food and space,

not be drastically

and static.

is

Calanus

of one population

stable,

environmental

as to why

harm the community.

whereas

stable

in composition

and long-term

unit,

that

moderately

of being

changing

will

of

some natural

be reasonable

one another

with

to occur

by examining

would completely

- there

by removal

fails

indication

the chances

with

euphotic

down from

Possibly

that

Would it

population

is this

populations

in the

to the stability

the copepod

fact,

competing

by other

extends

5).

The food relationships

instance,

would significantly

actively

that

so beneficial

5).

In actual

Calanus

is

removed

The reason
species

penetration.

for

(see box in Fig.

whole community?

live

number of species.

Consider,

elimination

that

we can get our first

restraint

community,

region

(Fig.

at which photosynthesis

of communities

environmental

sense

level

food relationships
existence

lighted

a great

herring,

of organisms

light

involve

the

that

the

of ineffective

the herring
these

i.e.

the Atlantic

ever-

immediate
of

as a biological

 -17-

FIGURE5

B

A

Protocentrum

)

C

D

/ /
/

Peridi~~-~um

---------------

The food relations of the herring at different stages in its life. Sizes of herring indicated are (A) 0.6 to
1.3 cm, (B) 1.3 to 4.5 cm, (C) 4.5 to 12.5 cm, and (D) over 12.5 cm. Solid lines point to food eaten directly by
herring; other links in the food chains are dotted.

 - 18 -

When we talk
living
about

components
all

energy

the

and their

other

intake,

nutrient

understanding

interactions

cycling,

both

of

we are
with

factors

about

one another.

the

But what

in an environment,

and abiotic

environment,

integration

talking

such as

· etc.

biotic

of our natural

level

communities

non-living

To include
higher

about

- the

components

into

we must proceed

the

to the

next

ecosystem.

ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT

Recalling
said

it

all

external

factors.

not orily

also

the

necessary
is

because

widely-used

wind,

that

concept

that

that

the

The fundamental

steps

and interact.
environment.

environment,

components.

He sees

he then

and animals,
in total

to make up a living

ecosystem

is

the vital

sun,

or a multitude

the plants

among ecologists

the

plus

from the

is

go together

live

called
current,

of his

we

one another,

be radiation

moisture,

a part

abiotic

ingredients
of this,

collectively

components,

essential

with

which they

They could

material,

biotic

interacting

are

be?

of an ecosystem,

them with

When one views
the

equally

around

ecosystem

influences

and organic

of other

It

on the

these

inorganic

the

influences

influences

What might

sees,

definition

was a community .of organisms

the

These

our previous

but

all
world.

and most

today.
in the operation

of an ecosystem

arc

as follows:
1.

reception

2.

production

3.

consumption

4.

decomposition

to inorganic

s.

transformation

to forms

producers.

of energy;
of organic
of this

matter
material

by producers;
by consumers;
compounds;

suitable

for

the

nutrition

of the

 - 19 -

Biological
energy

radiant

chemical

These

involves

which comes ultimately

from the
the

activity

conversions

are

Radiant
whereby

carbon

The basic

dioxide

in the presence

and heat

energy

process
with

metabolism.
of ecosystems.

in the photosynthetic
into

combines

energy

and from

cellular

to the energetics

is assimilated

molecule,

and which is transformed

forms via

is used

of radiant

sun,

of energy;

form via photosynthesis,

fundamental

photosynthetic

carbohydrate

from the

to the chemical

to mechanical

the utilization

energy
carbon

rich

carbon

dioxide

and chlorophyll,

a bi-product

process
compounds.

and water,

to form a

of oxygen.

673 Kilocalories
chlorophyll

process
is

the producers.

Since

subsequently

who's

herbivore,
consumer,

are

supply
(the

A primary

its

at

energy

molecules

that

serve

the

and metabolism,

or self-feeding.
on other

or what we call

derives

its

organisms

Heterotrophic

from the plants;

steps

with

needed

Theoretically

by photosynthesis

own growth

consumer,

the principal

system)

produced

this

a

a secondary

energy

indirectly

herbivore.

With these

in this

and perform

or other-feeding.

a carnivore,
the

two are

of nutrients.

energy

autotrophic,

directly

6) we can start

only

chlorophyll

are met by feeding

consumers.

(Fig.

photosynthesis.

needs

heterotrophic,

by consuming

producers

other

to as being

commonly called

components.

the

to as being

Looking
ecosystem,

into

nutritional

derives

from plants

contain

of the producers

is referred

referred

organisms

synthesized

requirements

producer

Organisms
are

that

are

nutritional
the

Those organisms

and components

the essential

- radiant

energy

two components,

non-living
from the
the green

can synthesize

organic

only

living

two other

of an

sun and a
plants

material
components

through
are

 -20-

FIGURE6

PRINCI
PAL STEPS AND COMPONENTS
OF AN ECOSYSTEM
ESSENTIAL
COMPONENTS

NON-ESSENTIAL
COMPONENTS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

}PRODUCER

LIGHT ENERGY

HERBIVORES

CARNIVORES

CONSUME

DECOMPOSERS
AND
NUTRIENTS 1....
4 --

_________
, '----------..,----------

\....____

-

___r_R_AN_sr_oR_ME_Rs_

y

NON-LI YING
COM
PON
ENTS

LIVINGCOMPONENTS

 - 21 -

essential

- the

consisting

decomposers

of bacteria

material,

rendering

by transformers,
inorganic

it

photosynthetic

of fungi,

soluble.

The material

into

plants

other

consumers,
the

living

the

herbivores,

forms

suitable

that

able

together

of nourishment,
the

first

the

constitute

further

are

usually

aquatic

third.

the

of each

plants

- the

level,

the

level,

followed

links

levels.

herbivores

six

and
level

food chain,

producers

seccnd,

trophic

is

constitute

and the primary
ecosystems

levels,

there

whereas

an

or more levels.

energy

living

trophic

by macroscopic

scavengers,

in the main food chain

or four

the

- usually

feed on

Each successive

In terrestrial

of the

phytoplankton

from

decomposers,

in the

the

in a specific

successive

links

the herbivores

by taking

members of a food chain
biomass

by the

three

are usually

obtain · energy

carnivores,

a food chain.

may have five,

can be found

for

- the parasites,

The plant

Some indication
level

the

on any of the three.

Additional

no more than

there

carnivores

level.

trophic

ecosystem

change

as nutrients

or indirectly

on producers,

constitute

level,

carnivores

down

ecosystem . . These are the

herbivores,

or energy

trophic

of the

to live

as represented

known as a trophic

that

to serve

number of organisms

The producers,
transformers

is then broken

of bacteria

directly
feed

and a small
are

feed on dead organic

and decomposers,

components

Herbivores

and saprophytes,

types

producers

animals

producer.

other

Decomposers,

again.

But besides
present

transformers.

and types

various

compounds

and the

available
weight,

area.
level

or biomass,

In aquatic

forms a type

and bottom
zooplankton,
invertebrates

at each trophic

flora

ecosystems
of pyramid

at the

at the

of the

first

second

and various

the
with

trophic
trophic

sizes

and

 -

species

of fish

at

succeeding

size

of the organism

this

is

influenced

whereas
there

size

facto,

tends

living

a reduction

relationship

weight

is to be found

each transfer

the

utilization

in this

falling

chemical

bond energy

chain

It

Roughly
energy

in the

roughly
bonds
at

those

store

chemical

10% of that
of other

each

energy

10% of that

animals

transfer
stored

of the

that

of energy
in organisms
next

higher

To illustrate
. some source.
Cellular

It

uses

fact

metabolism

that

captures

Ipso
A

eat

significant

source

non-cyclic

losses

usually

occur

at

1% or less

converted

to animals
in plants
that

eating

may turn

that

in a food chain,
lower

the plants.
up as available

have eaten

animals

level

eat

of the

to the kind of

may be incorporated

the

of the

and non-cyclic.

of the chain.

is available
of energy

is

is not 100% efficiency

is actually

in turn

relationship

this

energy

system,

plants

for

there

each link

plants.
into

the

And
chemical

the plants.

Thus

90% or more of the

chemical

becomes

unavailable

to

level.
this,

that

is

is another

is the only

bonds of animals

energy

- that

level.

is unidirectional

because

within

that

But

in the food chain.
then

The rationelle

in the

on green

place

trophic

producer-consumer

In the photosynthetic
sunlight

levels;

to become less

and biomass,

any ecosystem.
along

trophic

the

relationship.

tends

in the form of sunlight

behaviour

higher

at each succeeding

movement.

for

ecosystem

of an ecosystem.

also

of energy

of energy

biomass

size,

of energy

energy

~ith

of numbers must take

Implicit
Radiant

total

in the operation

the direction

In a typical

by the predator-prey

of numbers,

consequence

levels.

to increase

simply

increases,

is less

22 -

an organism

energy
energy

for

derives

cellular

in the

its

energy

metabolism

form of chemical

from

and for
bonds,

motion.
but

 -

through

motion

some of this

dissipation.
organism,

If that
part

metabolism,
occurs
does

not disappear

into

a state

be lost
along

cannot

is being

will

through

eaten

part

motion.

at the

start

constitutes

The same process

So although

of it

lost

by another

be used in cellular

the food chain.

continually

flow of energy

in the form of heat

energy

becomes transformed

be used ·by the next

continually

trophic

level.

And

at each level,

it must be

of the food chain.

This

one of the cardinal

principles

of

ecosystem.
Although

at

energy

at each level,

that

energy

one-way
the

will

is lost

is subsequently

of the available

and part

replenished

energy

organism

at each transfer

since

23 -

each trophic

fact,

there

level,

is a progressive

the nutrient

diminishing

component

some may even become concentrated

of energy

is not diminished;

in certain

steps

in

of the food

chain.
In any event,
in which

energy

eventually

is,

for

subjected

released

back

available

for

into

is

the

pollutants,
on the

ocean,

not lost

when nutrient-containing
environment

in the

same manner

protoplasm

is

and transformation,
into

a form that

it

is

is potentially

re-use.

principles

illustrative

are

to decomposition

A specific
ecosystem

nutrients

example

help

to clarify

we have been discussing.

since

it

and because
(Fig.

might

7).

is
all

frequently
life

the

some of the

The ocean
final

on the planet

ecosystem

end-point
is ultimately

for many
dependent

 -24-

FIGURE
7

ECOLOGICAL
CYCLE
OFTHEOCEAN
~

ESSENTIAL
PRODUCERS

/

PHYTOPLANKTON
- DIATOMS

TRANSFORMERS
~

HERBIVORE
GRAZER

/

ZOOPLANKTON
- COPEPOD

DECOMPOSERS

r~-..:.___
,r.....

__

---

~~

~

,,,,,,//

\

INTERMEDIA
INVERTEBRA

LARGEFISH~
◄----

\

MACKEREL,
HERRING,
SHAD

MODERATE
SIZEFISH
COD
, HADDOCK
, FLOUNDER

SMALLFISH

 - 25 -

ECOLOGICALCYCLE OF THE OCEAN

In the
green

plants,

are

phytoplankton

open sea the phytoplankton
the

is represented

In the
place

in the

diatoms

reach

to drop
account
upper

population,

off

and fall

to a low level.

for

these

spring

comes,

favourable

changes.

of the

ocean

to the
sunlight

rate.
green

with

up,

to death.

reduce

the

transparency

while

at the

same time

throughout

the

about

zone from the deeper
the diatoms

begin

forces
in the

a replacement

levels.

When

and duration,

of the population

growth

until,

until

to divide

ensues

bring

Furthermore,

this

goes forward,

paradoxically
the

of the water,
has provided

1 the

great
thus

at a

and the

sea

spring

increase

nutrients

are

plant

cells

abundance
limiting

a food supply

thermal

characteristically

sununer months

and release

zone remains
autumn,

and then

has tended

light
for

starve

nutrients

stratification

depleted

when stronger

because
at

remain
the majority

levels

a new generation

prevents

of its

nutrients

winds

and lower

at a low ebb
of dead cells

below the
deep

during
surface

stirring,
the

to

penetration,

'grazers'.
The diatoms

Because

The

of the water

brings

in intensity

takes

bloom.

environmental

stirring

reactions

As diatom

themselves

of herbivore

Various

which cause

ecological

to an end however.
used

spring

in March or April,

the winter

euphotic

growth

the

of growth

diatoms.

Certain
progressively

during

exist

Exponential

called

The thorough

increases

conditions

The main bulk of

a sudden outburst

often

maximum numbers

nutrients

decompose

ocean,

their

layers

becomes

producers.
by diatoms.

temperate

diatom

of the

fast

essential

- microscopic,unicellular

euphotic
the

summer.

temperatures

zone.
euphotic
In the
allow

 -

effective

stirring,

A rather

nutrients

sudden

place,

increase

known as the

and reduced

restored

in the diatom

illumination

of the

are

autumn bloom.

Now that
chain

26 -

stops
we've

open sea,

let

to the upper

population

Reduction

layers.

may then

of nutrient

phytoplankton

growth

discussed

the pfoducers

us turn

to the consumers.

take

supply,

during

the winter.

in the food
Here we come

I

across
base

a situation
of the

of special

aquatic

interest.

food chain

The fact

are microscopic,

that

plants

has far

at the

reaching

I

repercussions
in the
for

on the oceaneonic

sea are

their

unable

ecosystem.

to use phytoplankton

nutrition

upon a chain

animals,

mechanisms
water

that

larger

the

animals.

the zooplankton.

possess

feeding

the

small

phytoplankton

from the

into

yheir

body cellular

material.

parcels

small
third

The herbivores

in the

filter

animals.

able

animals

in the

food

that

is often

certain

fish,

to feed
in the

The fact

that

composed

successful

feeding

link

Nevertheless,

being

substances

represents

are

the copepods,

them to filter
the

in turn

being

animals

they must depend

to larger

consumers

larger

of '.food of sufficient

size

for

animals.

obtaining
are

enable

and incorporate

Zooplankton,

these

most abundant

as food,

of smaller

In the open sea the first
These

! Most of the

directly

world,
the

food chain,
less

community

The primary
are

confronted

than

upon the

with

a c!ntimeter

zooplankton.

the whalebone
of these

of no more than

three

of such large,

whales,
whales
linksr

of the open sea are

carnivores,

representing

the problem

herring

and shad,

One of the

live

of

in length.

such as the mackerel,

food chain

maintenance

typical

entirely

on plankton.

is relatively
may account

warm-blooded

largest

efficient,
for

the

mammals in the

sea.

 - 27 -

Most marine
longer

food chains.

zooplankton,
fish

are

Various
eaten

such as cod,

as a shark,

carnivores,

may represent

activities
that
forms
before
water

the

for

containing
As a matter

world,

in terms

Ocean,

where

of biomass

90% of the

growing

ocean

The reason

of food.

surface,

It produces
and has little
- the

necessary

for

high

productivity.

resources

in short
food chain,

supply,
result

euphotic

once more.But

·fraction

upper

for

layer

but

the

of the

in the Antarctic
nutrients

of the world

the open ocean,

of the world's

fish

more in the
lacks

the basic

a

about

desert.

loses

to

are

a biological

are

reductions

area

zone.

of the open ocean
energy

in further

active
supply

yielding

Not only

the

to the euphotic

occurs

the oceans

is essentially

potential

this

area,

In truth,

a negligible

is

up the

that

into

by the phytoplankton

continually

in the

by the

and animals

by the currents

upwellings

source

plants

per unit

is commonly thought

total

at present,

produced

such

and transformers,

the most biologically

permanent

limitless

is completed

again

by larger

carnivore,

of the gr~en plants

of interest,

populations

It
virtually

from tfe

can be assimilated

large

plankton

material

eaten

of

six or more links.

of decomposers

them must be restored

zone.

the

group

the nutrition

nutrients

of five,

I

diverse

large

on

quantities

in turn

A. very

cycle , of the ocean

the dead organic

suitable

which are

a food chain

of a large,

turn

fish,

dependent

consume large

or flounder.

The ecological

are

invertebrates

by small

haddock,

however,

catch

future.
the nutrients

mineral

in the repeated
in the potential

transfers
energ y

harvest.
Only in coastal
nutrients

are

brought

to the

zones

and coastal

surface,

upwelling

is productivity

areas,

high.

It

where
is these

 -

areas

that

supply

these

are

the areas

man with virtually

years

if

is not

are

marine

in.

current

pollution

all

10% of the
subject
forms

of domestic

heavy

metals,

tanker

spills,

all

of man's

marine

available
land

masses

will

There
mentioned
drawen

since

between

receiving

in only

zone,

a~d is
It's

synthetic

pesticides,

in the
detergents,

radioactive

do not stop
earth

a

there.

with

wastes,

Primary

a large

part

of its

become biologically

dead,

suit.
trait

demonstrates

the

an unpolluted

place

99% of the pollution,

the

is one other
it

size.

activities:

Once our oceans

soon follow

their

take

effluents,

supplies

oxygen.

despite

pollution

The effects

atmospheric

the shape
statement

10% is the coastal

hydrocarbons,

in the oceans

about

is

be dead in fifty

activities

industrial

etc.,etc.

productivity
our

This

chlorinated

This

This dire

indestructable

surface.

sewage,

Unfortunately,

think.

biological

of 10% of the water

will

continue.

water

to nearly

question

are not

fishes.

so concerned

the oceans

practices

of the oceans

total

are

as one might

The oceans

of his

is the most prevalent.

biologists

·Many predict

as far-fetched

Virtually

all

where pollution

why many prominent
our oceans

28 -

of ecosystems
fine

line

and polluted

that

that

should

can often

be

be

environment.

EUTROPHICATION
A major
they

undergo

succession.

semi-terrestrial
nutrient
with

considerable

deposits

is

ecosystem

proceeds

terrestrial

hence
amounts

of ecosystems

An aquatic

or fully

deficient,

increasing

characteristic

state.

unproductive

of nutrients,
of organic

material.

they

age;

ultimately

They initiate

systems,
hence

that

and develop

typically
into

productive

systems,

This

process

aging

to a
as

ones
with
from low

 - 29 -

production
result

or oligotrophy,

of enrichment,

Successional

is often

change

a process

of the environment.

in deeper

waters.

altered.

for

Dissolved
Electrical

There

or at least

Plankton
the

is

available,

sparse

dominant

succeeding

the

involve
Their

through

input

flagellates,

the blue-green

of blue-green

create

most of the problems

on surface

- obnoxious
of water,

lake

herring,

these

fish

are

later

by generally

lakes

whitefish

replaced

sized

time

lake during

the two

and fish.
is responsible

of nutrients,

algae.

and objectionable

less

scale,

are

the
by diatoms.

algae,

and finally

Major population
associated

aromas

source

by bass,

favoured

the

the

and walleye.

gradually

The eutrophication
geological

absence

are

blooms

with

and flavours,

skim

etc.

Oligotrophic
char,

properties

plankton

the green

water,

eutrophication

especially

are replaced

in highly-eutrophic
algae

through

in the biota~

- the desmids,

the

increase,

of such lakes.

proceeds

are

changes

lakes.

phytoplanktons

diatoms

in biotic

are depleted

and thermal

changes,

deep blue

changes

to be decreased,

conductivity

in oligotrophic

As enrichment

others

of
or

Some nutrients

tends

are corresponding

characteristic

original

while

most obvious

development

by significant

oxygen

as the

the eutrophication

as is individual

components
storage.

major,

including

is accompanied

long-term

or eutrophy,

to as eutrophication.

Succession
or become more readily

also

referred

of ecosystems,

lakes,
is as natural
population
growth.

and abiotic

to high production,

types

process
amount

a human lifetime

of such species

as trout,

As eutrophication
perch

and pike;

such as carp

is one that

of natural
is virtually

proceeds
and still

and sunfish.

is measured

eutrophication
imperceptible.

on a

in a moderateThe

 - 30 -

changes

are

slow,

but nonetheless

This
even by highly
peoples

process

of water.

lake

which

than

that

is rendered

is that

in the rate

in the natural
of an oligotrophic

by pollution
the

in some

at which a

the ·.condition

which has reached

by pollution,

the question

is an acceleration

more eutrophic
lake

raises

an increase

logic

is accelerated

This

occurs,

Their

of another

of aging

effluents.

as to whether

normal

quality

process

purified

minds

perfectly

natural

relentless.

is no more 'unnatural'
same state

without

human assistance.
Because
classification
at

times

of this,

lakes

often

from a biological

to assess

has been caused

present

point

difficult

of view.

how much of the alteration

problems

It

of

is very difficult

is natural

and how much

by pollution.

We will

return

to eutrophication

when discussing

Lake Erie.

SUMMARY
TO UNPOLLUTEDENVIRONMENT
In summary,
the

individual,

levels

above

organelle,

climatology,

and below

histology,

at

selection,

these

evolution,

of 'the environment

into

levels

place.

etc.

the

fields

and cellular

the

its

population,

and all

There

the organ,

are

tissue,

other

cell,

when studying

The levels

of integration

of anatomy,

physiology,

biology.

But the

real

and processes,
community

that

at -

and biome above.

interest

principles

of integration

extinction,
take

namely

hydrology,

environment,

higher

and ecosystem.

of particular

individual,

have been looked

and the bioclimate

molecular

of our

when we view the
is

four;

below,

enter

genetics,

understanding

It

these

and biome are

individual

of integration

community

meteorology,

the

levels

population,

and molecule

The bioclimate

below

four

the

the peculiar,

and the

comes
ecosystem.

drama of natural
dynamic

patterns

 - 31 -

The environment
su 1·
. .
.
pp ies the energy and materials
which
become mobilized
into a living
individual.
.
Individuals
themselves
are relatively
transient
entities,
through which materials
and
fl
energy
ow and eventually
return
to the environm en•t
The individual
is, in
a sense,

at

individual
ensure

the mercy of the
plays

in the

propogation

environment.

of the

species.

individuals
tend to form into
bou nd or they may be a tight,
matter
the

what characteristics

stability

of the

The ultimate
role that
is to produce
'
offspring
- to
In order to accomplish this,

environment

populations.
coherent

p opu 1ations
·

may be loosely
group of organisms,
but no

each possesses,

species

any

a population

as a whole by increasing

will

increase

the reproductive

potential.

To look
may not

necessarily

increase

it

increased

than

if

in a higher

each

level

to successfully

possessing

higher

more often,

population;

while

predators,

the

thus

This

situation

aquatic.

In each

case,

results

from grouping

potential.

swam about

of each

individual,

restraints
It

the

occurs
increased

individuals

too

are

the population

close

size,

are

as a whole

More adults
proximity.

vigour,

less

the

etc.

are able

genes

able

in all
stability
together

subject

to

through

to escape

populations,

are

Adults

the more genetically-fit

Wh1. ch continually
·s the role of the

l.

are mo.re obvious

Yet despite

flow of desirable

fish

than

of fish

~lone.

of their

or older

- it may even

Why is this?

of strength,

rather

Populations

schools

of fitness.

of a population

vulnerability

fish

increasing

weaker

formation

individuals

For example,

qualities

prey

environmental

way, the

spawn because

falling

biotic

another

reduce

vulnerability

remains

mate

it

in some cases.

to predators

able

at

the

from the
fish.

terrestrial

and propagation

and

of the

species

to form populations.

to stress

in the

keep check
population

form of

on the population'

to ensure

that

this

s

 - 32 -

environmental

resistence

This

difficult

is often

forces

are

carrying
numbers.

shifting

does not exceed
to accomplish,

back and forth

capacity

of the

But whereas
community
support

is highly

many different

competition

for

be low.

will

stable

stable,

unpolluted

of

the

environments

will

of predation

the number of individuals

represented

of individuals

results

in~

and

highly

system.

environment

probably

will

and fauna

present,

environmental

change

food chain

and the

there

arctic.

tropical
temperate
lacking

will
system
high

are

Arctic
waters.

high diversity,
affect

Since

diversity

notable

contain

communities
stability

or man-made could
regions.

species

to the

that

Any change
drastically

kinds

organisms.

The

stable.

tundra

of organisms

whether

in these

by other

in the more usual

- the most important

fewer

factor

of the complex

due to natural

and low numbers

exceptions

environments.

stability

eliminated

filled

changing

are many different

as a whole remains

more hospitable
natural

portion

there

of those

The same applies

built-in

the constantly

a small

be quickly

waters

regions.The
the

only

the role

Although
situation,

with

at any one time.

of organisms

the

. in a fluctuation

but because

high diversity

In a community
flora

a mean - the

is moderately

of populations,

potential.

the two

around

- resulting

Most natural,

kinds

biotic
times

in strength

the population

food and space,

This

and often

environment

stable.

a species

than

one being

temperate

as contrasted
living

with

in the arctic

is characteristic
in environmental
alter

or

the

of the
conditions,
communities

our
are

 ,,
I
\

I
'!

- 33 \

I

\

Our
the

bio tic

fi nd all

and
the

on this

final
abiotic

and

motion,

production

of

nature.

It

biotic

importance

life

necessary

for

is
takes

is

in

the

takes

is

the
is

ecosystem,

within

the

abiotic
the

this

place.

subsequent

cyclic

activity

matter

and

place

within

why the

responsible

and
of

and

organic

all

This

it

It

reception

transformation,

for

integration,

the

continued

e ncompass es

ecosystem

that

existence

of

of

for

we
life

planet.

synthesis

the

of

components.

ingredients

The

the

level

biological

concept
system

of

the

is

the
is
that

nutrients

later

regarded

and other

environment.
principle

day-to-day

material,

and

of

the

ecosystem.

as

the

basic

a harmonious

the

energy

decomposition

sphere

maintaining

components

ecosystem

of

its

ecosystem
for

utilization

unit

equilibrium
This
theme

orderly

of
among

inherent
behind
and

ecology,
systematic

 -

34 -

POLLUTEDENVIRONMENT
TERMINOLOGY

Organisms
to withstand
organisms

or tolerate
have only

factor.

Organisms

eurytopic

can generally

between

the

with

two,

are

aquatic

range

of tolerance

together

is characterized
this

for

of organisms,

to live

environment

conditions.

of tolerance

a wide range

able

as . to their

environmental

Both types

Such an association,
In the

changing

a narrow

organisms.

be classified

is

Stenotopic

some particular

are

referred

and all

simply

to as

the grades

· in an unpolluted

by high

ability

diversity

environment.

and low numbers.

known as a clean-water

association.
If
thereby

some element

decreasing

the

would not be able

organisms

occurs,

becomes
are

range

able

each population

the

the

this

to live.

substances
the

load

from the

stenotopic

organisms

and would disappear.

associatiqn

association,

The diversity

environment,
When

of the aquatic
in which only

would be low,

eurytopic

and numbers

in

high.

pollution

whereby there

conditions,

a polluted-water

of some element,

context,

the

clean-water

When such a change
addition

or removed

of tolerance,

to tolerate

such a situation
environment

was added

is

that

takes

place

element

in the

is called

means any event,

environment
a pollutant.

or continuing

into

the

environment,

in such quantity

that

the

environment

is not able

the

balance

adversely

affecting

general

Used in

circumstance

introduced

without

from the

some substance

or

to sustain

of nature.

 - 35 --

that

Such a definition
takes into
place in many circumstances.

takes

which act

to kill

off

flood,

excessive

heat,

rapid

debris

or inorganic
able

drop

compounds.

to absorb

in temperature,

impact.

What constitutes

addition

of some element

in such large

quantities,

extended

period

that

is the

also

higher

levels

pollution

sudden rise

But in one way or another

the

of time,

the natural

events continually
a number of individuals,
be it drought,

occur

is usually

account
Natural

not only

in organic

the environment
pollution

or over

individual

is the

such an

affected,

but

of integration.

TOLERABILITY

Different
Why should
answer
its

organisms

one organism

lies

in the

behavioural

have different

tolerances

be more susceptible

anatomical

patterns,

than another?

and physiological

life

cycle

to pollution.
Generally

the

make-up of the organism,

complexity,

and its

position

in the

community.

Many organisms
Animals
prone

which

breathe

material.
across

by suspended

material.

the

organism,

that

presence
than

of oxygen,

ones

absence

are

which

are

of oxygen.

because

their

the

surface
As a rule

because

gills

will

facultative,
This

situation

external

gills

can become easily

membranes

are

of thumb,

the more specialized
it

will

also
i.e.

less

is

able

to tolerate

i.e.

able

to live

is particularily

by

gills

which breathe

apt

to be affected
and

to pollution.

determine
able

are

clogged

lacking

aerobic,

be less

anatomy.

organisms

of respiration

completely

of their

unprotected,

the more susceptible

The type
organisms

large,

In contrast,

by diffusion

complex

susceptible

through

to asphyxicat.ion

suspended

are

to live

tolerability.
only

a changing
for
true

a short

in the
environment
time

in biological

in the

 - 36 -

waste

treatment

able

to

the

tolerate

the

predominant

adjust
to

systems,

to

adapt

are

type

of

changing

apt

to

In
specific

bacteria

widely

tolerate

the

second

is

of

proper

pollutants

that

notably

have

evolved

nest

building,

and

caring

for

young.

will

terminate

the

ritual

and

no offspring

responses

are

attacking,

to

specific

also

behavioural

involved

fleeing,

be more

complex

the

specific

third

tolerable

to

life

cycle

environmental

probability

that

will
the

affect
trophic

pollution.

levels

in

the

In

level.
each

of

of

of
Let
level.

food

the

us

The

first

able

dependent

on

tend
with,

and

to

or

be

block

stickleback,
mating,

a stimulus

at

be produced.

any

stage

Behavioural
feeding,

with
is

simply

affect

and

one

an organism

of

tend

comes

to

from

thus

the

more
of

increased

conditions.

in

a community

that

be more

tend

the

number

holds

the

cycles

the

these

Organisms

chain

life
because

greater

requires,

tolerability.

this

simple

are

higher

susceptible

to

cumulative

effects

in

of

chain.

and

return

are

to
is

on unpolluted
some of

the

environment
principles

these,

and

find

the

individual.

to

environment,

relationships,

the

it

will

a food

section

integration

of
will

This

position

In many cases

pollutants

levels

degree

that

when courting,

organisms

an organism,

a pollutant

its

are

minnow

Failure

pollution.

what

more

etc.

conditions

Lastly,

able

the

interfere

in predator-prey

case,

of

is

it

responses,

the

patterns

schooling,

In the

which

illicit

species,

Instead,

a pollutant.

individuals
to

in

seldom

system.

Organisms

changes
of

are

the

since

conditions.

case,

Many fish

in

facultative,

addition

certain

bacteria

changes

fluctuating

patterns

intolerant

aerobic

fluctuating

to

the

response~

completely

environmental

behavioural

highly
the

rapidly

themselves

more

where

the

that
effects

we looked

at

four

operated

at

each

of

pollution

on

 - 37 -

INDIVIDUAL

A pollutant

Lethal

can affect

1.

by direct

lethal

2.

by sublethal

lethality

chronic
is

action.

may be acute

is

the

Sublethal

involve

sufficient,

point

that

small

to decide

sublethal

effects

changes

are

chances

reproductive

still

integration.

there

changes

than

four

four

sublethal

responses

may be chronic.
days,

days.

is either

in bioassay

whereas
Lethality

dead or it's
tests.

The more

to a pollutant.

ecologically
for

success

be argued

the

must always

that

the

study

of acute

must be more concern

within

whether

against.

Yet it

an organism,but
changes

be carried
meaningful,
in the

are

with

it

sublethal

enough

i.e.

becomes

easy

increasingly

Studies

on

to show whether

whether

environment,

effects.

is relatively

deleterious.

far

lethality

they

thereby

reduce

reducing

or not
the

its

potential.
A pollutant

but

than

used

stress

of view can hardly

difficult

animals

or it

Action

to document

the

longer

an organism

criterion

Many biologists
not

acting,

to be less

as being

symptom to observe;

and is usually

or fast

taken

taken

common symptoms however,

This

ways:

action.

is generally

lethality

an easy

alive,

is

in two basic

Action

Lethality
Acute

an individual

be adverse

can show no adverse
to the

For example,

population,
some pollutants

effects

on an individual,

or even to higher
will

cause

levels

of

damage to the

 - 38 -

peripheral

sense

organs

responsible

for

detecting

fish,

through

minute

together.
through

fish

from their

individual

fish,

but

and scattered,

what effect
that

population

the

can sometimes

more common ones will

1. Nervous

is

prevent

can affect

a body chemical

key

Knowledge

about

the

incorrect

general-

There

is on the

systems,

and is

involved

impulses

across

nerve

nerve tract.

Thus the

body defense

system.

are

a number
only

the

- The most common mode

the

in the

individual

system.

system

and

Acetylcholine
animals

with

transmission

junctions.
impulses

nervous

nervous

common to all

nerve

is

an organism;

Interference

can enter

the

that

the

the movement of acetylcholine.

is blocked

is,

here.

of a pollutant

Many pollutants

that

what effect

of a pollutant

effects.

be mentioned

of action

effect

and what effect

of a pollutant.

System

of the

of integration;

action

help

a pollutant

block

in terms

changes

community.

sublethal

of ways by which

harm the

of sublethal

have on a population,

toxicity

of movement

have on an individual,

important

the

closely

stability.

levels

the

about

same

become disorganized

if one thinks

have on the

modes of action

will

its

Understanding
to predicting

detection

significance

will

will

is

to the

to keep the

not directly

reducing

a pollutant
will

this

will

has on succeeding

individual

izations

it

more meaningful

the pollutant

devise

the population

thereby

organs

close

and to keep grouped

inhibits

Evaluating
is often

in the water

use this

changes,

sense

changes.

neighbours,

If a pollutant
pressure

One of these

movements

pressure

Schooling
distance

of fish.

nervous
of

When acetylcholine
fail

to travel
looses

up the

an important

 - 39 -

2.

Peripheral

Sense

Organ Disorders

in a similar

manner,

sense

organs

that

contact

with

the

lateral

line

systems

that

are

interfere

with

an individual
outside

world.

running

the

length

dete~ting

changes,

and keeping

the

organism

Blockage

of the

effectively

sense

in
have

of their

minute

body

pressure

in equilibrium.

from this

the organism

lateral

to loose

all

of equilibrium.

3. Respiration

Disorders

individual

in rate

pollutant

that

- The initial

to a pollutant

decrease
the

impulses

causes

to keep

For example, fish

for

nerve

can,

the peripheral

requires

responsible

line

individual.

of respiration

respiration

that

handling

mechanisms.

Although

respiration

somewhat

obscure

other

that

a cell

there.

Ulcerations

may rupture
Internal

a condition

of a material

and cause

poisoning

become cancerous.
become

lethal

ie.

to a pollutant,

to the

pollutant

in rate.

body,

a pollutant

arising

from the

or a large

result,

capable

Most internal

to the

is of a

can
inclusion

properly

belon ~

number of cells

edema.

can also

become carcinogenic,

oxygen-

measured,it

which doesn't

may result,

usually

of the

a change

the

of the

respiration

not related

- Within

within

chemical

as a response

Internal

endocytosis,

upon whether

homeostasis

easily

significance

in causing

cause

the

is

often

or

usually

depress

may be influential

Disorders

are

destruction

rate

factors,

of an

or a stimulant.Pollutants

with

do so by means of physical

since

depending

rate

interfere

Pollutants

reaction

may be an increase

is a depressent

stimulate

compounds

4.

- A pollutant

organism

or a pollutant
of causing

sublethal
if

the

tissue
disorders

ailment

persists.

may
to
can

 - 40 -

5. Growth - In many cases
effec :ts

operating

growth

on an animal.

extremely

sensitive

measured,

and is an important

presence

of a pollutant.However,

most

sensitive

6. Performance

to reduced

sublethal

Since
its

performance

measurements

are

show the

simply

is of primary

expend

energy

importance;
at a rate

reduced

by toxic

substances,

a good means of evaluating

(Fig.

available

difference

pollutant
raising

together,

between

standard

standard
oxygen

the

available.

ability

predators,

catch

scope

oxygen
active

scope

consumption,

food,

become useful
on respiration

by either

case,

etc.

energy

mean the

escape

for

or both

"extra"

would presumably

and assimilate

A

or by lowering

In either

currents,

of a pollutant

oxygen

of activity

to stem fast

of activity

consumption,

would have less

this

as

at maximum activity).

oxygen

individual

the

and is estimated

and the

consumption.

In nature

lessened

is the metabolic

(an individual

the

active

This

activity,

this

and

is to study

for

can reduce

respiration

approach
8).

at rest),

consumption,

effects

does not

maximum on swimming alone.

one meaningful

(an individual

the

to show the

performance

- When comparing

of activity,

capacity

the

Growth is easily

criterion
it

is

effects.

performance

the

growth

oxygen.

run will

is easily

7. Scope of Activity
scope

For instance,

organisms

to 80% of their

sublethal

sublethal

to move. This

on a spawning

equivalent

all

effects.

- For active

means the ability
salmon

integrates

from

Changes

in

evaluating

and performance.

 -41-

FIGURE
8

SCOPE
OFACTIVITY-THE METABOLIC
CAPACITY
OF AN
INDIVIDUAL
THATIS AVAILABLE
FORACTIVITY

-----------

... '411t

SCOPEOF
ACTIVITY

--~,

'<

~ACTIVE

',

\

---

\

RESPIRATION

POLLUTANT

►

RESTING

 - 42 -

8.

Stress

Syndrome

- Sublethal

contribute

to

individual

more

prone

to

suspended

solids

can

result

fin-rot,

a general

etc.

concentrations
and

disease.

on the

west

the

ulceration

from
and

accompaning
bacteria
cause

have

been

it

apparently
and

temperature.

mentioned
clearly

fish

in

because

a palatable

their
the
signal

levels

responses

in many animals,

by predators.
also

affect

the

schooling

prevent

And as
social
of

the

interactions
fish.

pollution

and

and

causative
but

only

resistence.

behavioural

regard

responses

to pollutants.
by damage

to

taste

some hydrocarbon
they
then

approach

spit
has

it

the

out,

been

destroyed

be triggered.

establishment

making

discussed

sockeye

water,

mechanism

cannot

the

a lowered

feeding;

taste

Sublethal

natural

of

mouths,

rivers

of

affected

from

spawning

These

of

in

parasites

a disease

by a surge

- A number

toxic

by a lethal

liquefacrens,

have

of

combat

in

was caused

concentrations

prevent

salmon

in

an

sores,

to

to

occured

present

is

Sublethal

take

ability

when organisms

Changes

compounds
food,

water

makes
levels

exposed

major

This

Aeromonas

behaviour

buds.

the

can

ulcerations,

been

an epidemic

normally

already

Feeding

of

was triggered

disease

Behavioural

have

that

Sublethal

in body

a weakened

high
are

disease.

have

river.

concentrations

syndrome

that

coast,

inhabiting

stress

Fish

In one

bacteria,

9.

pollution

them

of
more

avoidance

prone

earlier,

sublethal

between

individuals,

to

attack

levels
as

in

 - 43 -

10.

Reproductive
can

Disorders

cause

in

harm

a number

individual
direct
and

of
is

to

is

ways.

Since

to produce

as

whether

is

or

role

it

follows

that

most

harmful

effect,

the

most

not

potential

ultimate

offspring,

the

of pollutants

reproductive

the

damage

regarded

determining

levels

an individuals

reproductive
it

- Sublethal

important

of

the

criterion

a substance

is

in

detrimental

to

nature.

Pollution

(a)

A female

can

the

I

and

to

{b) A pollutant

{c)

reproduction

a toxic

although

substance

detrimental

their

with

may concentrate

bloodstream,
her,

interfere

it

at

substance

may not

the

in

have

may be transferred

many stages:

its

an effect

to

the

on

yolk

and be

egg.

may directly

kill

sperm

and

egg by permeating

membranes.

A pollutant
blocking

may interfere
hormal

with

cycles,

the

endocrine

and upsetting

the

glands,
reproductive

system.
{d) A pollutant

may inhibit

stimulants.

Animals

same

by chemical

species

Sex pheromones
that

illicit

These

(f)

are

can

a process

called

Pollutants

can

other

physical

other

substances

in

substances

sexual

the

animals

known as

emitted
opposite
can

organic

delay

by blocking

influence

substances

by certain

Pollutants

or

can

responses

chemical

mimicked
(e)

spawning

to

the

members

of

the

pheromones.
environment

of

be blocked,

necessary

the

sex.

inhibited,

or

pollutants.
maturity

of

an

individual

-

neotony.
destroy
features

spawning
needed

grounds,
to

nesting

successfully

material,
reproduce.

 - 44 -

pollution

Studying an individual
shows the immediate effect
of
on the environment.
But it
·
does not reveal the long-term

effects.

To find

of integration,

these,
the

it

next

is necessary

one being

to proceed

the population

to higher

levels

..

POPULATION

Populations
subject

are moderately

to fluctuation.

intensity

and/or

The effect

the

amplitude

stable

entities,

of a pollutant

of these

though

is to change

fluctuations.

the

It does this

by

either:
1.

directly

increasing

population,

the

environmental

whereby

the population

indirectly

increasing

the biotic

population

by lowering

which

the population

resistence

of a

number declines.

or
2.

case

In the
restraints

first

in a large
on the

individual.

a large

sector

of the

When this

ecological
does

such

into

the

disaster.

environment

to produce
a population
individuals
removed.

population,

situation

extinction.

take

in loads
Rarely

that

are

are

does

There
able

it

to

in sufficient

usually

increase

per
a small

if

to
will

be

upon as an

overloads

pollutants

a pollutant

are

of extinction

greatly

not

in the

be detrimental

is looked

Ordinarily,

that

as outlined

threshold

place

in

can impose environmental

restraints

a pollutant

place.

from an area.
left

the

resistence,

increases.

ways,

the

takes

Only if

a disaster

number

a pollutant

Should

of the

environmental

number of different

section

reached.

case,

the

potential

a system
are

discharg

ed

concentration

se totally

wipe-ou t

number of

and when the pollutant

is

 - 45 -

The second
when a pollutant
rather
of

does

removes

can

be able

Removal

additional

habitat

behind

of

both

populations.
causes
to

to

situations

in

as

trout,

in

tolerant

the

waters

char,

such

A Lake
of

pollutants.

dramatically
consisted
mayfly

in
of

By 1965,

dissolved
faced

Lake

had

in

to

the

from
in

Before

compete

for

cause

and

another

become

such

as

with

bottom

the

more

meter

became
habitat

with

the

a great

tolerant
leeches,

etc.

pollution-sensitive
tolerant

populations

worm Tubificidae
in

84% of

polluted,

larvae,

snails,

some of

changed

fauna

more

the

the

has

caddisfly

so low that

constitutes

such

reciprocal

composition

nematodes,

square

seen

an increase

this

The oligochaete
per

is

etc.

fauna

along

population

fish

with

In 1930 the

etc.

and

situation

demonstrates

worms,

today

food

vacancies

susceptible

perch,

years.

10 organisms

Erie

with

an environment

simultaneously

species

Lake

the

This
of

bottom

tremendously.

and

greater

one population

competition.

further

Meanwhile

1957,

with

it

in two different

indirectly

Erie's

had

to

to

sunfish,

nymphs,

oxygen

since

a population

into

detrimental

occurs

oligochaete

numbers

meter
Erie.

as

expand

disappearance

fifty

extinction.

increased

square

last

provide

simultaneously

of

example

dragonfly

such

has

turn

the

Lake

the

species,

increased

is

pollution-sensitive

nymphs,

species

that

carp,

Erie

Removal

potential

of pollution

occur

etc.
as

will
can

but

resistence.

biotic

it

to

where

occurs

species.

removal

walleye,

fish

since

may in

through

potential,

·
oo d an d 1·1.v1.ng
space

introduction

decline,

increase

frequently

environmental

species

susceptible

biotic

1.'nd1.'v1.'duals 1.·n a population,

their

food,

the

the

a population's

A pollutant

it

effect

of

the

a competing

and

by the

cause

harm

increase

Often
will

increasing

to move 1.·n s e ar c h o ff

freedom.

left

not

some part

a predator

will

case,

1929 to
all

bottom

Tubificidae
many other

550 per
fauna

on

population
organisms.

 - 46 -

Once those
biotic

other

organisms

potential,

any population,
it

it

and become the dominant

Pollution
Since

disappeared,

can act

the biotic

ultimately

population

is a part.

or decrease

the

full

species.

operating

and the environmental

increase
affects

to reach

on the two forces

potential

can effectively

pollution

then

was able

entire

in

resistence.

the population

numbers,

community of which that

COMMUNITY

To go back for · a moment to natural
mentioned
of the

they

high

are

highly

diversity

per

With this
to disrupt

while
course,
will

this

come a point,

tolerant
below
see

forms

it

an effluent

them,

becomes obvious

tolerant

of tolerant
in extremely

will

inhabit

by lowering

numbers

increase

They are

we

stable

because

and the

low

species.

stability

the

that

in mind,

this

increasing

entities.

of species

number of individuals

acts

stable

communities,

vanish.

only

polluted

areas,

One has only

discharge,

pollution

the diversity

species

species

that

that

of species,

remain.

goes

(Of

so far.

There

when even the more

to observe

an area

or some of our industrial

immediately

harbours,

to

this.)
If a pollutant

overall

consequences

populations

would

seldom

happens.

affect

other

requirements,

populations

were to only

might
soon take

Pollutants

not appear

so great,

over

the vacancy.

that

affect

populations

with

breathing

devices,

have disappeared

affect

similar

the

one population,
since

closely

anatomy,

etc.
vacancy

are

behaviour,

When a large
will

competing

Unfortunately,

one population

the

this
likely

to

food

number of similar

be filled

by more tolerant

 - 47 -

existing

species.

This
population
needed

is

section.

little

dissolved
in

high

for

numbers.

of

turn

oxygen

described

of populations

dissolved

replaced
survival.

The result

These
is

in Lake

oxygen
by those

in the

for

Erie

survival

popu la tions

populations

a community

that

requirin

g

promptly

with

low diversity,

numbers.

At the
full

in

situation

number

amount

and were

increased

the

A large

a considerable

disappeared,

and

precisely

detrimental

next

level

ramifications

of

integration

of

pollution

- the
can

ecosystem

- the

be examined.

ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem
interacting
them

with

with

one

which

ecosystem

are

they
called

becomes

external

part

plus

live

interact.

in

substances
in

To give
let
(Fig.

us

an

the

the

organism's
which

path

the

external

These

of

organisms

influences

influences

as
of

of

added

to

an organism
the

must

toxic

nutrients

live
of

around

on the

as

behaviour
it

air,

or

enters

land,

becomes

one

and

interact.

of

the

particulate

substances

do when they

mimicking

a pollutant

It

addition

These

this

water,

environment.

constitutes

same manner

the

is

environment.

illustration

follow
9).

a pollutant

cases

all

a community

environment.

with

most

into

and

the

the

influences

Pollution

behave

of

as

another,

Whenever
it

was defined

tend

ender
of
the

to

a medium.

some pollutants,
environment,

 -48-

FIGURE
S

EFFECT

NUMBERS

OF POLLUTION

ON

TROPHIC LEVELS

1

ECOSYSTEM

CONCENTRATIONS

1,000PPM

1,000
100,000

ZOOPLANKTON

1,000,000

PHYTOPLANKTON

POLLUTANT

1 PPB

 - 49 -

Upon introduction
pollutant

enters

diffusion

or

chain
per

at

first

organism

and

is

trophic
point

a toxic

level.

If
it

as

and
the

pollutant

could

easily

of

a whole.

one

but

on lower

levels

all

are

the

succeeding
for

can
1.

2.

in other
can

restrict

levels.

They

can

into

inert,

restrict

or

is

then

consecutive
until

death
the

of

also

at

that

first

trophic

fourth

on the
that

affected,

some

trophic

ppm by the

inhabiting

level.

ecosystem

level

since

can

can

biotic

directly

to

disrupt

the

energy

the

nutrient

unusable
causing

forms,
excessive

activity,

block

transformer

They

each

consequences

cause

the

in

the

photosynthesis

trophic

decomposition

4.

1000

dire

are

waters

lessening

and

to

incorporation

thereby

They

the

1 ppb at

populations
levels

to

nutrients,

3.

in

as

has

concentration

they

depend

nourishment.

act

They

With
increases,

resulting

level

its

food

by macroinvertebrates

fish.

be concentrated

trophic

aquatic

The phytoplankton

of pollutant

out

absorption,

the

phytoplankton,

larger

be met,

the

ingestion,

enters

zooplankton

by the

In addition
pollutants

the

started

Not only

removed,

through

- the

concentration
can

environment,

be insignificant.

those

limit

abiotic

a pollutant

level

to

the

The removal

If

zooplankton,

fish,
level

level,

likely

the

environment

trophic

by the

small

biotic

photosynthesis.

the

consumed

the

to

the

ecological

through
to

cycle
they

chain,

cycle.

turbidity,

available

or

food

succeeding

by tieing
can

up nutrients

themselves

productivity,

oxygen

act

demands,

etc.

nutrient

cycle

by restricting

decomposr>r

activity.
physical

environment.

as

damage

to

any

part

of

the

abiotic

 - 50 -

In other
of the

steps

in the

energy,

the

production

matter,

and the

words,

pollutants

operation

are

able

of an ecosystem

of organic

decomposition,

matter,

to alter

any one

- the reception

of

the consumption

of this

and release

of this

transformation

matter.
Are the
When viewed
identical

at

level

- a change

ecosystem.
not

the

end results

for

of the

fact

ecosystem

that

yes,

ecosystem
might

simplification

As mentioned

alterations

ecosystem,

from a complex

A simplified
the

of these

same?

the results

are

to a simplified

be acceptable

results

previously,

the

if

it

were

in instability.

in a natural

community

the

I

loss

of one population

balance,
role

since

there

of those

filled

is

the

number of individuals

total

collapse

of the

and follow
(Fig.

ocean

the

kinds

because

might

wiped out.

balance

section

1/2,

of a pollutant

as it

changes.

would bring

a

area.

environment,

Now we will

community

or even 3/4 of its

in that

on unpolluted

be quickly

environmental

Such a state

of nature

was described.

movement

1/4,

will

and the

in a simplified

of natural

have

ecological

of organisms,
changes

But what happens

community

In the

the overall

due to environmental

removed

to the

to disrupt

many different

total

cycle

not

organisms.

when a population
case

are

eliminated

by other

In this

tends

return
passes

the

ecological

to that
through

example
the

cycle,

10).

MOVEMENT
OF A POLLUTANTTHROUGHTHE ECOLOGICALCYCLE OF THE OCEAN
As soon as a pollutant
part

of the

turbulent

organism's

mixing

environment.

and ocean

currents,

is
It

added

to the

is diluted

and transported

water

it

becomes

and dispersed

by

away from the

 - 51 -

source

by currents

of

man's

if

it

and migrating

present

could

problem

pollution

problems

be uniformly

is

that

concentrations

diluted

oceans
which

are

or

direct
the

physical

harm.
uptake

growth,

because

of

its

up the

pollutant

will

aquatic

food

birds,

or

chain

reach

show no toxic

the

man,

incorporated
and

into

through

the

uptake

trophic

injury

processes
food

processes

or

toxic

the

are

by seaweeds.

most

involves
either

no effect

may be concentrated

the

Often

marine

final

a

environment

consumer
such

as

in

the

shore

result.

by which

chain

have

consumer,

could

local

the

could

levels.

of

by a terrestrial
or

cause

a pollutant

should

high
changes.

processes

level

The

by biological,

blooms,

hits

However,

death

Two other

it

depth.

environmental

stage

causing

and all

and we find

But a pollutant

final

be eaten

mixed,

by biological

until

effects.

chain

even

growth

vast

ocean's

The biological

At this

is

be immeasurable

concentrated

quantities.

food

the

undesirable

concentration

minute

by moving

and

the

processes.

stimulate

probably

thoroughly

by phytoplankton.

depress

would

may become

The major

The sea

throughout

not

produce

A pollutant
chemical

organisms.

a pollutant

by direct

Pollutants

can

become

absorption
can

into

sometimes

fish,

be directly

I

absorbed

by organisms

seldom

takes

place

concentrations.

with

high

absorb
types
of

the

because
Fish,

concentration

amounts
of

higher

of

plants,

food

food

active

but

pollutant

chain,

do fish

pollutants.

pollutants,
so the

the

rarely

and most
of

such

as

encounter

animals,

such

tend

to

Some seaweeds
rarely
does

do animals
not

proceed

fish.

to

processes

that

can

also

ultimately

be concentrated
find

their

avoid
also

areas
directly

on these

higher

by chemical
way into

this

high

can
feed

But

levels

chain.

Pollutants

physical

in

a food

and
chain.

 -52-

FIGURE
I

DISTRIBUTION
OF A POLLUTANT
IN THEECOLOGICAL
CYCLEOF THE OCEAN
POLLUTANT

MARINE
~---4
ENVIRONMENT

DILUTEDAND
DISPERSED
BY

,----~/-

TURBULENT
MIXING

-~---

OCEAN
CURRENTS

-8-10 L-0-GIC;;;;.A---.L

CONCENTRATED
r-..___
__
..____ BY
__
....,

PROCESSES

__

...o-'./;;,..__-~__,;:a--

UPTAKEBY
FISH

__

UPTAKE
BY
SEAWEEDS

UPTAKE
BY
PHYTOPLANKTON

.....
~~---,

INVERT
EBRATE
BENTHOS

TRANSPORTED
BY
OCEAN
CURRENTS

MIGRATING
ORGAN
ISMS

CHEMICAL
&
PHYSICAL
PROCESSES

------ADSORPTION

~

ION EXCHANGE

PREC
IPITATlON

_________
..;::::..__.....,.
ZOOPLANKTON

----- ------FISH, MAMMALS

ACCUMULATJON
ONTHEBOTTOM

 - 53 -

Most important
the

is the precipitation

of these

Mixing of this

bottom.

upwellings

may bring

spring

the pollutant

As a final
on an ecosystem,
Lake Erie.

during

and fall

back to the

illustration

we will

and accumulation

as to the

return

on

and subsequent

surface.

effects

to eutrophication,

of pollution

and in particular,

CULTURALEUTROPHICATION

An acceleration
to natural

waters

process,

results

termed

called,
that

lead

which

aspect

to an overall
industrial

contain

wastes,

intensified

lake

decades,

lakes

have become eutrophic

growths

of plants,

It
eutrophication

impression

is always

in lakes
of the

affected
natural

eutrophication

as it
those

Municipal

from fertilized

farmlands,

plant

urbanization,

is

pollutants

production.

of essential

nutrients
industrialization,

and use of phosphate-based

In some cases

in a matter

is unfortunate

that

runoffs

world.

and a change

mere acceleration
the

of the

nutrient

with

has been an ever-increasing

in many parts

enrichment

dealing

This

and as a result

eutrophication

With . increased

there

addition

production.
man's

in biological

practices,

nutrient

naturally
case,

of pollution

surface

waters.

lakes

excessive

latter

concentrations

agricultural

in recent

both

or cultural

increase

significant

enrich

In the

of plant
biological

occurs

environment,

is a special

sewage,
all

disposal.

of the

rate

in increased

eutrophication

of waste-effluent
pollution

in the

the

number of enriched
even very

of decades.

fauna

and misleading
by man is
phenomenon.
is

of dense

diversity

that
so often
This

irreversible.

oligotrophic

The end result

same: production

in the

detergents

of

nuisance

and numbers.

the

drastic

referred
analogy
This

to as a
often

qives

is not true,

 - 54 -

and

has

have

been

been

demonstrated

diverted

recovered

to

in

away

a less

a number

from

lakes

eutrophic

of

cases,

and where

where
they

man's

have

wastes

subsequently

condition.

LAKE ERIE

Over
have

taken

place

elements
in

from

the

the
in

of

nitrates,

and

basins
for

subject
botto

to

50 years
Erie

of

the

sodium,

dead,

dissolved

organic

Lake

have

Erie

in nutrient

changes

have

chlorides,

matter,
remained

at

The western

about

70-80%oxygen

basin,

affecting

about

occured
sulfates,

etc.

The central

oxyge n d epletion

on this

with

the

to

keep

case

of

algae

which in turn

the

however
70% of

A number

of

replaced

by more

Cyanophyta,

or

in

same is true
species

the

last

for

the

ha v e a l l but

have flouris

h ed .

the

of

more

the
in

and

is

the

large

total

invertebrat
b ec ome extin

e s.
c t,

far

and

in

s u ch as

no ta bly
o t h ers

Th e more
while ' the

fa l l

the

have

dead
from

Unfortunately

populations

gre e n a l gae

spring

wh i le

is

ago .
both

popu l a ti o ns

zooplankton,

is

years

f lora

filamentous

Erie

i n th ei r commercial

sensitive

tolerant

few years,

ten

as d e s ir a ble,

stable,

species.

resulted

not

Lake

La k e Erie

tha t of

are

community

that

I n truth,

double

species

Some types
i ncr e ased

area.

fish

have

te d statement

nearly

abundant

disappeared;
green

low-oxygen

production

presently

ability
in

increase

changes

m wat er.

based

the

the

potassium,

l a s t 7 0 years.

s eve re

of

of profound

Significant

The frequ en tly-quo
is

a number

because

sources.

calcium,

phosphates,

saturation

Lake

man-made

amount

eastern

past

their
value,

have
the

blue-

Cladophora,
' blooms'.

Cladocera
disappeared.

have
The

pollution-sensitive
more

tolerant

species

as

 - 55 -

The mayfly
in

the

were

western

found

basin

in

Lake

increased

from

Bloodworm

larvae

meter.

have

last

Erie

in

the

past

has

changed,

but

the

presently

species
whitefish,

not

ability

the

in

abundance.

is

probable

altering
fish

food

reduced.

notably

To the

as

pike

prey

species.
etc.

extent

and

walleye,

This
in

the

has

communities

it

1940

resulted

worms.

doubled

catch

Unfortunately,
value

sturgeon,
have

been

over

in Lake

the

flesh.

of

the

cisco,

all

sited

declined
as

others

crappies

the

reason

acted

to

Also
1

the

has
upset

in

excessive

all

these

all

- the

increased

so drastically?

limit

and

increased

have

changed

mayflies

also

clams,

species.

and

pollution

square

drastically

of

the

meter.

fingernail

commercial

declined,

areas.

has

has

the

has

per

changed

and walleye

has

square

reproduction

production
their

affected
the

It

of

larvae,
the

balance
dominance

by
certain

have

larger
of

been
fish,

predator

by yellow

and
perch,

community.

The total
fauna

Since

have

oligochaete

fish

desirable

the

that

also

populations

spawning

organisms,

such

smelt,

reducing

the

have

reproduce

eutrophication

the

The composition

sunfish,

fish

ihclude

I

some species

Why have

500 per

production

do not

these

hand,

300 organisms

has

herring,

carp,

to

to produce

to

no mayflies

other

notably

11).

back.

lake

smelt,

that
and

numbers

species

of many of

perch,

60 to

fish

(Fig.

But while
yellow

from

decade,

however,

metyr

composition

The failure

the · decline

square

Commercial

pike,

dramatically.
for

species

common invertebrate

on the

and most

a few years

blue

By 1967

large

snails,

abundant

present

per

with

few years.

most

Sludgeworms,

increased

species

leeches,

was the
1950.

Erie.

Fish
the

before

10 organisms

Other

nemat~des,

larvae

of

effect
Lake

Erie,

of

have

resulted

changes
in

in

the

a decreased

flora

and

diversity

 -56-

FIGURE
II

ANNUAL
COMMERCIAL
HARVEST
OFFISH
ERIE LAKE
40 .--------------------------NOTEINCREASE
IN ANNUAL
CATCHES
6. CHANCES
IN SPECIES
COMPOSITION

35 t---------------.
30 J-----------------t;
en

25 1--------------------t

c:::::,

::z:
::::,

c::::>

a...
LL.

20 1---------------------.

c::::>
u,

:z:

c::::>
....J....J

-

15L----------------------1:

~~~__,.___~

~~~~~

..,.___..__,___,..._,.___,.___,.__,._~
..........,,._,,,.._,,,.~

.......__,__.......,.__,..._,._,.._,.._~~~_,.___,.
......
, ... ,,-1~,....
,....:.,,.
,,,..., ,,\",..~I \ - -i) ..,, ''I ,./
---~,,'-f/i,--....~
\<..',,,
....
\°'ti 1..!_--,J..,
-1-1
' , ...._,..,
1-1 I I'
~

~

~~~

-::.,, ..................
, ....1-1/,,

10J..-------------1~,'-'.!.,,,-;,

t \ !..\- \1,
, ..., , \ I

__ ,_,

..- I ~-1 I ..,../,, I ,,l~--1,....=,._:,...:..~1...
~;.,,,
,-,,,,;,;;:..

,:-,.:1_!.l";;j,.

\'

... ./1 ' - .I \.:"
I\. I..-\,.!_

I,'.....'!,

-~._,...__,.__,.._,.__,.__~...,..f-----t

.......__,__..~---~~~~

~~~~~
-

-

~

~

i,.~-

1 0

5

5 ---.... ...c...s_c...e""P'fw.-0,:H~I
T~EF~I
....
H~------////i///////i/i/////i/iiiii///i///////////////////////////////i///1/:
! '~ .., ,,,...__,
~·.~.!.
,!.i;1:::,~.'.,
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:...~:
...:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:

0
1900-1909

1930-1939

1960
-1969

 - 57 -

of

species,

while

and large

production

of the

numbers

of the

system

of pollution-tolerant

aquatic

progessively

ecosystem

organisms.

might

increase,

so

stability

decreases.

SUMMARYTO POLLUTED ENVIRONMENT

In summary,
balance

between

highly

stable

assurance
living

all

we commonly

abiotic

even with

constantly

will

perpetuate

refer

to the

which

lethal

one must

begin

or sublethal.

peripheral

sense

performance,
but

a few.

the

ultimate

individual's

the

effect

interferes
or
will
entire

cause

the
the

It
impact

This leads

of which

the

can be either

nervous

organs,

system,

growth,

or reproduction,

individual

of the
the

is

to name

to produce
against

on a population
numbers

population

the

very

dynamics.

- a loss
population

offspring,
an

prone

i.e.
Whether

of stability
is

effect

to change

on a population,

communities

The ultimate

is

fluctuations,

resistence

by examining

to a situation

is upset,

of integration

The effect

must be judged

same end results

of pollution.

the

conditions,

balance

level

internal

of pollution

with

is

earth

in a

potential.

environmental

community

first

behaviour

of the

amplitude

directly

lessening

the

can affect

of a pollutant

reproductive

to the

When this

respiration,

role

results

environmental

individual.

of activity,

Since

that

a

as pollution.

The pollutant

scope

environments

gives

changing

pollution,

organs,

and/or

stability

situation

the

natural
components

themselves.

is

The effect
intensity

in all

and biotic
This

When studying
at

exists

co-existence.

that
forms

the

there

it
increasing
a pollutant
affects

the

a part.
that

is

that

the

we find

to simplify

to environmental

the

long-range

the

community.

change.

 - 58 -

With
can

be

cycle

seen.

by disrupting

the

concept

Pollution

consumption
of

the

of

can
the

in

the

instability.

any or
of

material,

that

leads

turn

results
can
this

result

polluted

Instability

This

the

at

ecosystem,

or

all

energy,
the

the

full

stages

of

consequences
the

ecological

photosynthetic

decomposition

process,

and cycling

material.

organisms

is

act

the

reception

organic

The end

and

of

to

in

breeds

disaster.

of

a detrimental

of

more
nature.

same - a simplified

A simplified

in many different

sequence

the

area.

a simplification,

occur

balance

sequence

is

detrimental

events

- the

that

causes

outcome

application
instability,

- can

situations
to

community

life

take
or

community
denotes

of

a stress
and which

many different

locations.

as we know it,

of

in

forms,

But nowhere
than

within

 - 59 -

BIOLOGICAL INFORMATIONSYSTEMS
PARAMETERSOF POLLUTION
There

are

a number of ways to detect

pollution

in the

environment:
1.

Physical

Parameters

turbidity,

particulate

de .nsi ty,

etc.

2.

that

Parameters

concentration,
nitrogen,

that

crop,
etc.

concentration

the

effects

Biological

that

have other

components

sul~ates,

in the water.

ion
etc.

the concentration
They cannot

will

have on the

on the

- can include

biomass,

species

Biological

assess

the

living

a pollutant

components

and diversity,

parameters
but

productivity,

will
they

has on the

not measure
will

immediate

Aside
effects

assess

biota.

have a number of advantages

parameters.

advantages.

primary

range

of a pollutant,

parameters

and chemical

parameters

assess

chlorine,

measure

a pollutant

the

question

they

hydrogen

gases,

only

Parameters

bioassays,

fundamental

'rather

the

environment.

Biological

physical

dissolved

pollutant

standing

above

do not measure

- can include

parameters

effects

3.

temperature,

in the abiotic

COD, BOD, phosphates,

Chemical

of the

salinity,

pollutants;

place

odour,

environment.

Chemical

of the

take

colour,

parameters

of specific

changes

of the

matter,

Physical

concentration
the

- can include

from answering
of a pollutant,

over

and

the
biological

 - 60 -

Of greatest
parameters
Often

for

reflecting

pollutants

are

With constant
However,
occured.

adverse

released

monitoring

to monitor

changes

in concentration

parameters,

into

biota

gradual

changes

long after

parameters

the discharge

are

environment.

detected

by regularly

their

Subtle

may not be detected

advantage

well

is that

away from the

may have been translocated

chemical

may go unnoticed.

by chemical

monitoring

populations.

sample

pollutant

in the

periods.

intermittently.

discharges
detected

of biological

extended

environment

these

of nutrients

A further
in a water

over

of biological

but may be readily

phytoplankton

the

is easily

advantage

ability

is the potential
conditions

devices

damage to the

Another

of the

significance

or physical
biota

parameters

may yield

a pollutant

source

may be identified

of contamination.

and diluted

by currents

_so that

However,

a survey

would be useless.

the necessary

information

The

to pin-point

the

source.
Finally,
pollutants

that

to accumulate
may not

are
at

parameters

in low concentration,

each

trophic

be detectable

as an immediate
However,

biological

level

by chemical

threat

to the

accumulation

into

of considerable

significance

for

But if
parameters,

prevent

and used
or reduce

interpretation

useful

of the

data

pollution,

of facts

based

it

at higher
of the

to be gained

must often

on something

Some pollutants

and may not be perceived

survival

in any decision-making

ability

or to human well-being.'

organisms

is

in monitoring

food chain.

parameters,

the

useful

but which have the

environment

their

are

role

trophic
ecosystem

from these
in the

be accomplished
less

than

levels

is

and man.

biological

effort

to

through

a complete

the

 - 61 -

understanding

of the

people

must

of the

ecosystem;

ecological

form judgements
that

is,

principles

based

involved.

on knowledge

on specific

In short,

of only

biological

Biological

information

systems

1.

artificial

or in-plant

monitoring

2.

natural

a portion

information

systems.

can be classified

into

two types:

or out-plant

In-plant
out-plant

systems

systems

encompass

monitoring

systems
systems

commonly employ bioassay
various

diversity

tests,

while

tests.

BIOASSAY

A bioassay
determining
a test

the

animal

of three
waste,
animal,

concentration

under

essential
which

stated
parts:

a response,
enzyme activity

Bioassay
and necessary
for

aquatic

results,

life.

Proper,
currently

potential
Basically

test

animals,

laboratory

usually

test

material

stimulus,

that

or other

change

sublethal

the most

effective

or

oxygen

symptoms.

official
methods

organ,

in weight,

have become increasingly

efficient

consists

or industrial

such as a tissue,

such as death,

to affect

A bioassay

such as a drug

to a subject,

involves

necessary

conditions.

as a means of determining

and are

assessing

tests

of biological

of a given

the

when applied

evokes

consumption,

is a type

more important
water

can yield

quality

criteria

meaningful

and accurate

method

of

danger.
a bioassay
fish,

consists

to a series

of exposing
of solutions,

a sample
varying

of

only

in

 -

the

concentration

are

followed

of the pollutant

so that

number of animals,
solution,

etc.

their

sample

at

a length
are

response

specific

time

of time,

usually

evident

in the

data

obtained

TLm, is

mortality)
interval,
value

usually
for

using

trout,

of 25 mg/1 of ammonia will,
approximately

50% of the

including

and application

trout

joint

LCS0 value

receiving

water.

been

in the

used

controls
of 0.05

are

then

responses

no further

course

studies,

his

The LCSO, or
(e.g.

exposure

96 hour

- LCSO

means that

of 96 hours,

test.

using

a prescribed
This

to the

the

a 50% response
the

for

changes

terminates

evoking

a solution

kill

solution.

can be made of the

toxicity

the

frequent

in each

procedures,

within

exposed

takes

an LCSO value.

25 mg/1.

the

Only the

LC50 value

of a

multivariable

analysis,

factors.
The application

to the

is

diluting

death,

or until

For example,

over

A number of uses
pollutant,

animals,

tank,

investigator

of standard

of a substance

The

sample.

measuring

and extracts

of test

of guidelines

to sample.

investigator

a set

test,

of test

usually

After

48 or 96 hours.

ammonia,

the

48 or 96 hours,

concentration
in a sample

test,

intervals.
the

A set

in each

he is measuring,

follows

from the

the

the

samples,

He then

type

from sample
changes

Upon commencing
of the

size,

uniform

pollutant

study.

of the work results.

relative

are

of the

recordings

under

standardization

- all

concentration

62 -

a safe

For many years

being

of the

to ensure

factor

U.S.A.

the

degree

discharge

rate

now, 0.1 of the

as an indication

enforced

96-hour

is

the

LCS0 for

of safe

reconunendations
non-persistent

of dilution
of waste
48-hour
levels.
are

for

pollutants,

applied
into

the

LCSO has

As tighter
maximum levels
and 0.01

 - 63 -

for

persistent

would

pollutants.

be run

on the

An LC50 value

would

value

would

here

that

most

part,

pollutant

for

is

hoped
kind

The bioas

of

value

can

0.01

0.01 , and

question.
of

must

test

that

be emphasized
0.05

are

for

the

that
of

be expected

within

will

waste

s ay test

time

has

to

fit

all

an application

be available

a n umber

of

types

factor

.

advantages

and

are:

pollutants

c an b e c ompa red

and meaning f ul l y.

The LCS0 v al ue

serves

joint

of

toxicity

The LCS0 value
using

4.

under

and
It

0.1,

Th e toxi ci t y of di f fere nt
easily

3.

data,

concentration.

Among it s advantages

2.

the

factors

no single

particular

1.

discharge

bioassay

numbers.

it

l imitations.

mean a 96 hour

effluent
from

as a safe

arbitrary

pollutants,
each

or

application

Since
of

would

be obtained

be taken
these

That

Some of

the

a basic

two or more

can

application

The bioassay

as

be used

measuring

unit

for

predicting

pollutants.

to

estimate

a safe

level

by

factors.

test

can

be used

limitations

to

for

the

determiningsublethal

bioassay

method

ef fects.

are

as

follows:
1.

There
of

2.

is

procedure

There

are

natural
the
in

a difficulty
because
a large

of
number

environment

effect
the

in

of

bioassay

that

a pollutant,
test.

setting
the

down rigid

complexities

of

modifying

can

act

but

to
which

standards
involved.

factors
increase
are

not

in
or

th e
d ec re a se

con si d ered

 - 64 -

3.

It

is difficult

to determine

of a pollutant
4.

Because

by using

a bioassay

difficult

is repeated

the

interpretation

have not yet
exists

The second
out-plant

monitoring,

precise

under

identical
the

physical

level

if

the

is

t he

Theref ore ,
sy s tems

of reliability

that

now

sciences.

information

within

it

of biological

and chemical

i.e . testing

organisms,

condi t ions .

of biological

l eve l

bioassay.

unifor m resu l ts

and prediction

type

l ong-range

makes use of living

reached

in the

safe

a short-term

to guarantee

test

the

sy s tem in volv es

envir onment it self.

DIVERSITY TESTS

As disc us sed previously,
reduc tio n in the
Organis ms vary

greatly

The introduction
eliminating
which

complex i ty of the

those

sensitive
the

Tolerant
environments,

is polluted.

an absence
These

A population

pollution-sensitive

can be used,
called

indicator

principle

of species,

s pe cies.

of pollution.

only

by

those

organisms

in both

clean

not necessarily
organisms

and polluted
mean a body of
combined

a good indication

can be used,

of pollution,

of pollution.

or rather

and they

with

are

their

abs e nce

consequent

ly

organisms.

Monitoring
the

is

organisms

as an indication

until

of tolerant

organisms

a

remain.

found

does

types

number of species

pollutant,

are

presence

of intolerant

the

cause

or a simplification.
to various

conditions

organisms

and their

ec o s ystem,

reduces

to the

adverse

forms of pollution

sensitivity

of a pollutant

can survive

water

in their

most

that
while

within

a clean,
a dirty,

the

natural

unpolluted
polluted

environment

community
community,

is bas e d on

has a high

diversity

has a low div e rs i ty o f

 - 65 -

This

type

of monitoring

is . accomplished

through

diversity

tests.

There
methods

are

of presenting

1.

a number of different
diversity

Tabulation
is

a tabulation

composition

and difficult
2.

Graphing

for

the data

and unpolluted

the polluted
right,

species

are

(Fig.
able

12).

stream

the

For reference

Curves

score,

and the

were dependent

which were not always
4.

Diversity

Index

used

available

test

permutation

the

that

In contrast,

variety

such as these
the

further

few diatom
of species

by a relatively

tests

curve

small

visually

two environments.

seldom

biotic

used

index.

on a large

today

are

Both

number of control

sites

available.

- this

theory

·that

in a

mode and extends

a greater

between

two other

present

environment.

represented

improved

For example,

is noted

indicates

in that

presents

are

only,

it

This

difference

biological

techniques

is cumbersome,

species

has a lower

to live

the majority

illustrate

the

and

can be vastly

curves.

stream,

stream

unpolluted

of data
from diatom

number of individuals.

3.

This method

of log-normal

graphing

where

number of organisms

to interpret.

to the
the

of the

- the presentation

polluted

and

method of presentation

by species.

by the application
after

tests,

on paper:

- the most frequent

simply

their

data

diversity

is the most quantitative

at present.
of mathematics.

This
It

index

and widely
is based

is one of the

on the
better

 - 66 -

diversity
of

tests

indicator

in that

it

organism.

can be used

The test

indices

of different

populations.

to this

test

it

is that

for

any type

can compare

the diversity

The technical

requires

the

drawback

availability

of a

computer.

As a concrete

example,

zooplankton

species

from the
this

source

small

miles

out

index

test

it

study,

to the

only

site

over

Sequential

for

in biological
requires

diversity.

investigator.
investigator

involves

This

It

expertise

utilizes

to recognize

and size
taking

between
samples

the

and placing

surface,

determining

the

different

organisms.

the

number of runs

- the

higher

sites,

to four
discharge,
the

further

of the pollution.
t~st

was designed

to estimate
method
on the
innate

the differences

is useful
part

of the

such as shape,
Basically

bottom

fauna

of the

principle
the

in that

of the

ability

number of runs

The basic

shoreline

in diversity

organisms.

and by random mixing

In

revealed

effluent

differences

of the

13).

Yet when the diversity

of the

- this

non-biologists

no taxonomic

from the

source

away

at control

discharge,

increase

Index

(Fig.

tests

site

a

the distance

shelf.

from the

Comparison

specifically

colour,

continental

a substantial

for

discharge,

effluent

was done at the

revealed

against

in diversity

the

index

preliminary

of the

changes

away one went out
5.

was graphed

of an effluent

particular

similar

the diversity

the

test

in an area,

sample

on a flat

of similar
is - the

diversity.

and
greater

it

 - 66 -

diversity

tests

of indicator

in that

it

organism.

can be used

The test

indices

of different

populations.

to this

test

it

is that

for any type

can compare

the diversit

The technical

requires

y

drawback

the availability

of a

computer.

As a concrete

example,

zooplankton
from the
this

species
source

only

study,

to the
small

site

changes

miles

out over

index

test

it

was graphed

of an effluent

particular

similar

the

Comparison

specifically

for

in biological
requires

investigator

involves

It

expertise

utilizes

to recognize

and size
taking

between
samples

the

and placing

surface,

determining

the

different

organisms.

the

number of runs

- the

higher

discharge,
the

further

the differences

is useful

on the part
innate

it

of the

such as shape,
Basically

bottom

in that

of the

ability

fauna

of the

number of runs

The basic

to four

was designed

to estimate

organisms.

and by random mixing

shoreline

effluent

t~st

differences

of the

sites,

of the pollution.

This method

no taxonomic

In

revealed

in diversity

- this

non-biologists

13).

Yet when the diversity

of the

source

Index

diversity.

investigator.

discharge,

increase

away

at control

shelf.
site

from the

(Fig.

from the

continental

a

the distance

tests

effluent

a substantial

Sequential

colour,

of the

for

discharge,

preliminary

was done at the

revealed

index

against

in diversity

away one went out
5.

the diversity

principle

the

test

in an area,

sample

on a flat

of similar

and

is - the greater

the diversity.

 -67-

FIGURE
12

GRAPH-IC
COMPARISON
OF DIATOMCOMMUNITIES
FROMTWODIFFERENT
ENVIRONMENTS
40 ---------------------,

35
30
___..--NON-POLLUTED
STREAM

25
NUMBER
20
OF
SPECIES

15
10 · '

5

--------,,
-,, ,,
,,

1-2 2-4

' ',

-----

POLLUTEDSTREAM

---....

........

4-8 8-16 16-32 32- 64- 128- 25664 128 256 512
NUMBER
OF INDIVIDUALS
PERSPECIES

 -68-

FIGURE
13

ZOOPLANKTON
SPECIESDIVERSITY
PER100 INDIVIDUALS
ENCOUNTERED
IN AQUATIC
SYSTEMAFFECTED
BY WASTE
WATERFROMPETROCHEMICAL
INDUSTRY
16r----------------------,
14

12
10
SPECIES
OIVERSlTY,
8
PER100

6

2
2

3
MILESFROMSOURCE

4

5

 - 69 -

CONCLUSIONS TO BIOLOGICAL INFORMATIONSYSTEMS

It
complete
Rather

and comprehensive
it

is

acquired;
cases

has not been

that

it

The best

pollution

on the

chemical,

and biological

can an environmental

section

approach

biological

data

engineer,

of course,

data.
pollution

the

yield

effects

the

complete

be

in many

or other

to combine

Only by combining
study

can indeed

chemist,

a

systems.

numerically

when determining
is,

to give

information

can be expressed

to the

environment

of this

of biological

to show that

and can be meaningful

biologists.

intent

survey

an attempt

and further,

the

non-

of

physical,
three

parameters

and comprehensive

results.
The use of bioassays
seen

a great

will

soon be felt

near

future

ranking

deal

is

of application
is

going

in importance

that

ultimately
the

centered

ultimate~

in industry.

inevitable.

with

the

present

in the

pollution

have not yet

That

their

presence

the bioassay

water

quality

in the

standard,

day standards.

introduction,

upon living
for

tests

In particular,

to become a well-known

As mentioned
is

and diversity

the

effect

organisms.

It

be~

employing

of pollution

seems only
living

natural
organisms.

 - 70 -

MANAND HIS ENVIRONMENT

The welfare
compelling

demands

ecosystems,
As his

for

to

man's

influence

the

gaining

Such knowledge

is

existence

modified

ecosystems.

quantities

that

earth's

areas

that

~

of harmonious

environment
change.

life

planet

environment.
minimize
of the

It
this

planet

is

impact.
earth

few land

are

by these
that

these

facing~

level

recklessly

increasing
numbers

inescapable
that

must

effects

ecosystem

and

fact
must be

on it.

The world

is

multiply.

the

of which

on the

civilization,

is,

ecological
he is~

and will,

economy,

lives,

the
constantly

of each

environment.

of man in every

part.

to maintain

have an impact

our childrens

increasingly
and few coastal

and prosperity

inevitably

Our lives,

areas

or even desirable

however,

is

will

The environment

of his

that

activities.

today

some influence

duty

depend

with

problem

There

state.

exerts

the

and often

the

world

proliferation,

today,

function.

an increasingly

as his

in an ecological

possible

The development

as we know it

are

environment

a serious

to the

in a primeval

form on this
exception.

poses

way, without

at a desirable

activities

is

the

context.

adjustment

The propogation,

his

components.

of how they

there

problem

it

in a vast

Further,

indicates

In no way is

of their

man has achieved

technology,

activities.

The greatest

all

from his

increase

increase

earth's

man has enormously

have not been altered

population

of - the

with

where his

products

In sum, we live
by man's

organization

understanding

He is polluting

in an ecological

dominated

very

if man is to persist

know-how increase.

approached

present

increased,

an adequate

human population

human species

ecosystems

Unfortunately,

of waste

technical

have

in an environment

factor.

the

interactions

imperative

dominant

of the
about

and technology

simultaneously
of

answers

and about

numbers

ability

and future

life

Man is

and his

way of

on the

whole

walk of life
and the

no

to

very

life

 - 71 -

SUGGESTEDREADING LIST
GENERALECOLOGY
Clarke,

G.L.

1965.

New York.
Kormandy,

(a basic

E.J.

Inc.,

ecological
Readings

Englewood

Cliffs,

N.J.

1969.

E. 1963.
Harvard
texts

Concepts
N.J.

Animal

Species

in the

Phillipson,

J.

1966.

England.

energy

movement)

text

papers)
Inc.,

on ecology)

Belknap

Press

{one of the

of

better

of ethology)
Energetics.

(describes

John Wiley and Sons,
source

condensed

Cambridge.

H.B. and G.C. Whipple.

taxonomic

Inc.

Prentice-Hall,

Prentice-Hall,

and Evolution.

Ecological

London,

Sons,

&

{a number of interesting

{a small

Press,

field

in Ecology.

of Ecology.

Cliffs,

University

John Wiley

text)

1965.

Englewood

Ward,

of Ecology.

(ed.)

Kormandy,E.J.

Mayr,

Elements

Edward Arnold

ecosystem

1959.

concept

Fresh-water

New York.

(the

in terms

Biology.

best

Ltd.,
of

2nd. Ed.,

fresh-water

available)

POLLUTION
Carson,

Rachel.

1962.

(a classic,
Cowell,

E.B.

Institute

Silent

although
(ed.)

1971.

Hepple,

Peter,

somewhat

(ed.)

of Petroleum,

Effects

Elsevier

Water

Boston.

out of date)

on work being

1971.
· Elsevier

Houghton-Muffin,

Ecological

of Petroleum,

(a number of papers

Spring.

Publishing
done

Pollution

Publishing

of Oil

Pollution.

Co. Ltd.

in Wales)
by Oil.

Co. Ltd.

Institute

N.Y.

N.Y.

 - 72 -

POLLUTION cont'd
Hynes,

•..

H.B.N.
Press,

1960.

The Biology

Liverpool,

England.

of Polluted

waters.

(good basic

text

University
on water

pollution)
Marx,

W. 1967.

The Frail

(excellent
Olson,

T.A.

Ocean.

book on the
F.J.

&

Burgess,

Ecology.

Interscience

on marine

pollution)

Wilber,

C.G.,

Charles
basic

1969.

Coward-Mccann,

pollution
(eds.).

1967.

Publishers,

The Biological

on all

types

place

New York.
in our oceans)

Pollution

and Marine

New York.

Aspects

C. Thomas Publisher,
text

taking

Inc.

of Water Pollution.,

Springfield,

of water

(good text

Illinois.

(a

pollution)

RESOURCESAND HUMANPOPULATION
Borgstrom,

G. 1969.

Limitations.
Ehrlich,

P.R.

Too Many, A Story
Macmillan,

&

excellent

1970.

W.H. Freeman
text

Biological

New York.

A.H. Ehrlich.

Environment.

of Earth's

&

Population,

Co.,

Resources,

San Francisco.

on humans and their

relations

(an

with the

environment)
Rattray-Taylor,

G. 1969.

Publishing
watt,

K.E.F.

Co.,
1968.

Quantitative

The Biological

New York.

(interesting

Time Bomb. World
reading)

Ecology

and Resource

Management:

Approach.

McGraw-Hill,

New York.

A

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Alderdice,

D.F.

pollution
Can.
Cairns,

1967.

- biological

Fish.

J.

Rept.

Jr.,

Washington,
J.B.

Sprague,

1970.

Utilizing
4:

3-32.

Sprague,

J.B.

(not
stein,

J.E.

J. Wat. Pollut.

1968.

Cont.

Fed.,

acute

Measurement

of pollutant
toxicity.

and safe

to fish

Water Research

of pollutant

bioassay

Measurement

toxicity

toxicity

results.

- I.

3:793-821.

to fish

- II.

Water Research

of pollutant

toxicity

concentrations.

to fish

- III.

Water Research.

in print)
&

J.G.

Dennison.

In:

Publishers,

Pollution

1967.

Limitations

and Marine

of Indicator

Ecology.

Interscience

New York.

M.L. 1967.
Ecology.

for

effects

Organisms,

wass,

Index.

Measurement

1971.

yet

Fisheries:

.D.W., Buiey,F } and M.D. Chaney.

and applying

Sublethal

Canada Dept.

of water

D.C.

methods

J.B.

assays.

Comparison

1969.

Bioassay

and measurement

No. 9, 33-39.

Albaugh,

The Sequential

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In:

Pollution

New York.

and Marine