Nos. 14-556, 14-562, 14-571, 14-574
================================================================

In The

Supreme Court of the United States
-----------------------------------------------------------------JAMES OBERGEFELL, ET AL.,
Petitioners,
v.
RICHARD HODGES, DIRECTOR,
OHIO DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, ET AL.,
Respondents.
-----------------------------------------------------------------On Writs Of Certiorari To The
United States Court Of Appeals
For The Sixth Circuit
-----------------------------------------------------------------BRIEF OF THE COMMONWEALTH
OF VIRGINIA AS AMICUS CURIAE
IN SUPPORT OF PETITIONERS
-----------------------------------------------------------------MARK R. HERRING
Attorney General of Virginia
CYNTHIA E. HUDSON
Chief Deputy Attorney
General
CYNTHIA V. BAILEY
Deputy Attorney General
ALLYSON K. TYSINGER
Senior Assistant Attorney
General

STUART A. RAPHAEL*
Solicitor General of Virginia
*Counsel of Record
TREVOR S. COX
Deputy Solicitor General
OFFICE OF THE
ATTORNEY GENERAL
900 East Main Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
(804) 786-7240
sraphael@oag.state.va.us

CARLY L. RUSH
Assistant Attorney General
March 5, 2015
================================================================
COCKLE LEGAL BRIEFS (800) 225-6964
WWW.COCKLELEGALBRIEFS.COM

 i
QUESTIONS PRESENTED
1) Does the Fourteenth Amendment require a
State to license a marriage between two people of the
same sex?
2) Does the Fourteenth Amendment require a
State to recognize a marriage between two people of
the same sex when their marriage was lawfully
licensed and performed out-of-state?

 ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
QUESTIONS PRESENTED ................................

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................

ii

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES .................................

iv

VIRGINIA’S INTEREST AS AMICUS CURIAE ....

1

SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT ..............................

7

ARGUMENT ........................................................ 15
I.

The fundamental right of marriage is
protected by the Due Process Clause and
cannot be restricted to the narrowest
context in which it was historically practiced ........................................................... 15
A. The Court’s marriage cases do not
limit the right of marriage to the narrowest context in which it was historically practiced .................................... 15
B. Casey and Lawrence rejected the narrowest-historical-context approach to
restricting established fundamental
rights ................................................... 19

II.

The Equal Protection Clause prohibits
States from denying marriage rights to
same-sex couples and from refusing to
recognize lawful out-of-state marriages ..... 25

 iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS—Continued
Page
A. Same-sex-marriage bans are subject
to heightened scrutiny under the
Equal Protection Clause because they
classify persons based on their sexual
orientation, an inherently suspect
classification ........................................ 26
B. Heightened scrutiny is also warranted
because the marriage bans explicitly
turn on the participants’ gender .......... 28
III.

Federalism is not a valid basis on which
to withhold fundamental rights and deny
equal protection ......................................... 32

IV.

Even though the marriage bans fail the
rational-basis test, the Court should hold
that the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses demand more exacting scrutiny here .................................................... 36

CONCLUSION..................................................... 42

 iv
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
Page
CASES
Ableman v. Booth,
62 U.S. (21 How.) 506 (1859) ....................................4
Allen v. Prince Edward Cnty. Sch. Bd.,
266 F.2d 507 (4th Cir.),
cert. denied, 361 U.S. 830 (1959) ............................40
Ariz. Governing Comm. for Tax Deferred
Annuity & Deferred Comp. Plans v. Norris,
463 U.S. 1073 (1983) ...............................................31
Baskin v. Bogan,
766 F.3d 648 (7th Cir.),
cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 316 (2014) .............. 28, 38, 39
Bolling v. Sharpe,
347 U.S. 497 (1954) ...................................................1
Bostic v. Rainey,
970 F. Supp. 2d 456 (E.D. Va.),
aff ’d sub nom. Bostic v. Schaefer,
760 F.3d 352 (4th Cir.),
cert. denied, 190 L. Ed. 2d 140 (2014) ..............4, 5, 6
Bostic v. Schaefer,
760 F.3d 352 (4th Cir.),
cert. denied, 190 L. Ed. 2d 140 (2014) ..... 5, 16, 25, 37, 38
Bourke v. Beshear,
996 F. Supp. 2d 542 (W.D. Ky.),
rev’d sub nom. DeBoer v. Snyder,
772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014),
cert. granted, 190 L. Ed. 2d 908 (2015) ..................42

 v
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
Bowen v. Gilliard,
483 U.S. 587 (1987) .................................................27
Bowers v. Hardwick,
478 U.S. 186 (1986) ............................. 8, 9, 19, 20, 22
Brown v. Bd. of Educ.,
347 U.S. 483 (1954) ............................... 2, 7, 9, 25, 33
Califano v. Westcott,
443 U.S. 76 (1979) ...................................................31
City of Rome v. United States,
446 U.S. 156 (1980) .................................................33
Cleveland Bd. of Educ. v. LaFleur,
414 U.S. 632 (1974) .................................................30
Cooper v. Aaron,
358 U.S. 1 (1958) ............................... 4, 13, 33, 40, 41
Davis v. Prince Edward Cnty. Sch. Bd.,
No. 3 (U.S. 1954), decided sub nom.
Brown v. Bd. of Educ.,
347 U.S. 483 (1954) ...................................................2
DeBoer v. Snyder,
973 F. Supp. 2d 757 (E.D. Mich.),
rev’d, 772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014),
cert. granted, 190 L. Ed. 2d 908 (2015) ..................42
DeBoer v. Snyder,
772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014),
cert. granted, 190 L. Ed. 2d 908 (2015) ...... 17, 25, 34
Edwards v. Aguillard,
482 U.S. 578 (1987) ...................................................1
Gonzales v. Raich,
545 U.S. 1 (2005) .......................................................1

 vi
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
Griswold v. Connecticut,
381 U.S. 479 (1965) .................................................18
Henry v. Himes,
14 F. Supp. 3d 1036 (S.D. Ohio),
rev’d sub nom. DeBoer v. Snyder,
772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014),
cert. granted, 190 L. Ed. 2d 908 (2015) ..................42
Int’l Union, United Auto., Aerospace &
Agric. Implement Workers of Am.,
UAW v. Johnson Controls, Inc.,
499 U.S. 187 (1991) ...........................................29, 30
J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.,
511 U.S. 127 (1994) .................................................29
Kitchen v. Herbert,
755 F.3d 1193 (10th Cir.),
cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 265 (2014) .............. 16, 25, 38
Latta v. Otter,
771 F.3d 456 (9th Cir. 2014),
petitions for cert. filed (U.S. Dec. 31, 2014,
Jan. 2, 2015) (Nos. 14-765, 14-788) ...... 16, 25, 32, 38
Lawrence v. Texas,
539 U.S. 558 (2003) ............................. 7, 9, 18, 19, 22
L.A. Dep’t of Water & Power v. Manhart,
435 U.S. 702 (1978) .................................................31
Love v. Beshear,
989 F. Supp. 2d 536 (W.D. Ky.),
rev’d sub nom. DeBoer v. Snyder,
772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014),
cert. granted, 190 L. Ed. 2d 908 (2015) ..................42

 vii
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
Loving v. Virginia,
147 S.E.2d 78 (Va. 1966) ...........................................3
Loving v. Virginia,
388 U.S. 1 (1967) ............................................. passim
Lyng v. Castillo,
477 U.S. 635 (1986) .................................................27
Mass. Bd. of Ret. v. Murgia,
427 U.S. 307 (1976) ...........................................26, 27
Maynard v. Hill,
125 U.S. 190 (1888) ...........................................14, 42
Michael H. v. Gerald D.,
491 U.S. 110 (1989) ..................... 8, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24
Miss. Univ. for Women v. Hogan,
458 U.S. 718 (1982) .................................................31
Obergefell v. Wymyslo,
962 F. Supp. 2d 968 (S.D. Ohio 2013),
rev’d sub nom. DeBoer v. Snyder,
772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014),
cert. granted, 190 L. Ed. 2d 908 (2015) ..................42
Orr v. Orr,
440 U.S. 268 (1979) .................................................31
Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v.
Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1,
551 U.S. 701 (2007) ...........................................12, 36
Planned Parenthood of Se. Pa. v. Casey,
505 U.S. 833 (1992) ......... 9, 15, 16, 19, 21, 23, 24, 39
Plessy v. Ferguson,
163 U.S. 537 (1896) ................................. 2, 12, 36, 37

 viii
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
Rainey v. Bostic,
190 L. Ed. 2d 140 (2014) ...........................................5
Robicheaux v. Caldwell,
2 F. Supp. 3d 910 (E.D. La. 2014),
cert. before judgment denied,
190 L. Ed. 2d 890 (2015) .........................................25
Romer v. Evans,
517 U.S. 620 (1996) .................................................39
San Antonio Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Rodriguez,
411 U.S. 1 (1973) ...............................................26, 27
Schuette v. Coal. to Defend Affirmative Action,
134 S. Ct. 1623 (2014) ................................. 11, 34, 35
Stanley v. Illinois,
405 U.S. 645 (1972) .................................................30
Tanco v. Haslam,
7 F. Supp. 3d 759 (M.D. Tenn.),
rev’d sub nom. DeBoer v. Snyder,
772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014),
cert. granted, 190 L. Ed. 2d 908 (2015) ..................42
Turner v. Safley,
482 U.S. 78 (1987) ................................. 16, 17, 20, 24
United States v. Virginia,
518 U.S. 515 (1996) ................................. 3, 22, 31, 32
United States v. Windsor,
133 S. Ct. 2675 (2013) ..................................... passim
Washington v. Glucksberg,
521 U.S. 702 (1997) ....................................... 9, 23, 24

 ix
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
Whitewood v. Wolf,
992 F. Supp. 2d 410 (M.D. Pa.),
order aff’d, appeal dismissed,
No. 13-3048 (3d Cir. July 3, 2014) ..........................34
Windsor v. United States,
699 F.3d 169 (2d Cir. 2012),
aff ’d, 133 S. Ct. 2675 (2013) ...................................37
Zablocki v. Redhail,
434 U.S. 374 (1978) ................... 13, 16, 17, 25, 39, 40
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
U.S. Const. art. VI, cl. 3 ...............................................4
U.S. Const. amend. V ............................................. 1, 11
U.S. Const. amend. XIV ..................................... passim
Ky. Const. § 233A ........................................................28
Mich. Const. art. I, § 25 ..............................................28
Ohio Const. art. XV, § 11 ............................................28
Tenn. Const. art. XI, § 18 ...........................................28
Va. Const. art. II, § 7 ....................................................4
STATUTES
1 U.S.C. § 7 ............................................... 11, 32, 33, 37

 x
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
EXECUTIVE MATERIALS
2014 Op. Va. Att’y Gen. No. 14-074,
http://ag.virginia.gov/files/14-074_Frey.pdf .............6
Press Release, Governor McAuliffe, McAuliffe
Administration to Local Divisions of Social
Services: Same-Sex Spouses can now Legally
Adopt (Oct. 10, 2014), https://governor.virginia.
gov/newsroom/newsarticle?articleId=6827 ..............5
Exec. Order No. 30:
Marriage Equality in the Commonwealth of
Virginia (Oct. 7, 2014), https://governor.virginia.
gov/media/3341/eo-30-marriage-equality.pdf ............5
LEGISLATIVE MATERIALS
H.B. 1454 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+HB1454.............................................................6
H.J. 492 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+HJ492 ...............................................................6
H.J. 493 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+HJ493 ...............................................................6
S.B. 785 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+SB785 ...............................................................6

 xi
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
S.B. 917 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+SB917 ...............................................................6
S.B. 1181 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+SB1181 .............................................................6
S.J. 213 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+SJ213 ................................................................6
S.J. 214 (Va. 2015),
http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+
sum+SJ214 ................................................................6
BRIEFS IN THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT
Brief for the United States on the Merits
Question, United States v. Windsor, 133
S. Ct. 2675 (2013) (No. 12-307) ...............................27
Brief on the Merits for Respondent the Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group of the U.S. House
of Representatives, United States v. Windsor,
133 S. Ct. 2675 (2013) (No. 12-307) ........................37
Commonwealth of Virginia, Initial Brief: Appellee Respondent, Davis v. Prince Edward
Cnty. Sch. Bd., No. 3 (U.S. Nov. 30, 1953),
1954 U.S. Briefs 1 .....................................................3
Commonwealth of Virginia, Brief and Appendix
on Behalf of Appellee, Loving v. Virginia, 388
U.S. 1 (1967) (No. 395), 1967 WL 93641 ..............3, 4

 xii
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES—Continued
Page
Michigan, Respondents’ Brief in Support of
Petition for Writ of Certiorari, DeBoer v.
Snyder, No. 14-571 (docketed Nov. 18, 2014) .........30
OTHER AUTHORITIES
Chandler, Kim, Moore’s Supporters in 10
Commandments Fight Return to Back Him
on Gay Marriage Stand, Daily Reporter (Feb.
25, 2015), http://www.greenfieldreporter.com/
view/story/cc7f865e4e674884994871a6e672080c/
AL—Gay-Marriage-Alabama .................................40
The Declaration of Independence (U.S. 1776) .............2
Hening, William Waller, Statutes at Large;
Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia
(1821) (Vol. 9) ............................................................1
Jeffries, Jr., John C., Justice Lewis F. Powell,
Jr. (1994) ..................................................................23
LaCour, Michael J. & Green, Donald P., When
contact changes minds: An experiment on
transmission of support for gay equality, 346
Science 1366 (2014) .................................................23
Rutland, Robert A., ed., The Papers of George
Mason (1970) (Vol. 1) ................................................1

 1
VIRGINIA’S INTEREST AS AMICUS CURIAE
Virginia is proud to be “the home of many of the
Founding Fathers.”1 We revere James Madison as the
“father of the Constitution”2 and the “drafter”3 of the
Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights included the Fifth
Amendment’s guarantee of “due process of law,”4 a
protection that implicitly prohibits the Federal Government from “denying to any person the equal
protection of the laws.”5 The Bill of Rights followed in
the tradition of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, in
which George Mason wrote that “all men are by
nature equally free and independent and have certain
inherent rights . . . namely, the enjoyment of life and
liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing
property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and
6
safety.” And Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence proclaimed the new nation’s commitment to

1

Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578, 605 (1987) (Powell,
J., concurring).
2
Gonzales v. Raich, 545 U.S. 1, 57 (2005).
3
Edwards, 482 U.S. at 606 (Powell, J., concurring).
4
U.S. Const. amend. V.
5
United States v. Windsor, 133 S. Ct. 2675, 2695 (2013)
(citing Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497, 499-500 (1954)).
6
9 William Waller Hening, Statutes at Large; Being a
Collection of All the Laws of Virginia 109 (1821); see also 1
Robert A. Rutland, ed., The Papers of George Mason 274-91
(1970).

 2
the “self-evident” truth that “all men are created
equal.”7
We are proud of our Commonwealth’s contributions to America’s exceptional form of democracy, yet
it is also self-evident that the scope of the equality-ofright principle that these Virginians shared with the
world and helped enshrine in our Constitution was
not fully recognized in their day. Slavery was not
abolished until 1865, after a bitter civil war that
nearly split our country in two. Women were not
guaranteed the right to vote until 1920. And Statesponsored segregation was not declared unconstitutional until 1954, when Brown v. Board of Education8
overruled the 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson.9
The Founders and the majority in Plessy were
not the only ones who failed in their own era to
appreciate the full majesty of the equality-of-right
principle that they otherwise regarded as sacred.
Virginia’s government fell short of fidelity to that
principle in defending:
•

7

the segregation of public school students
in the companion case to Brown v.
Board;10

The Declaration of Independence para. 2 (U.S. 1776).
347 U.S. 483 (1954).
9
163 U.S. 537 (1896).
10
Davis v. Prince Edward Cnty. Sch. Bd., No. 3 (U.S. 1954),
decided sub nom. Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
8

 3
•

the prohibition of interracial marriage in
Loving v. Virginia;11 and

•

the exclusion of female cadets from the
Virginia Military Institute in United
States v. Virginia.12

Yet the arguments offered to defend those unjust
laws are the same arguments offered by marriageequality opponents today. Virginia invoked federalism, arguing that education policy and marriage
regulation are quintessentially State prerogatives
13
that federal courts should leave alone. Virginia also
invoked history and tradition to justify segregation
and anti-miscegenation laws, arguing that such laws
were acceptable to the Founders because they were
commonplace when the Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment were ratified.14 But Virginia’s
11

388 U.S. 1 (1967).
518 U.S. 515 (1996).
13
See Initial Brief: Appellee Respondent, Davis v. Prince
Edward Cnty. Sch. Bd., No. 3 (U.S. Nov. 30, 1953), 1954 U.S.
Briefs 1, 33 (“[T]o interpret the Fourteenth Amendment as
authority for the judicial abolition of school segregation would be
an invasion of the legislative power and an exact reversal of the
intent of the framers of the Amendment.”) [hereinafter Va. Br.
Prince Edward Cnty. Sch. Bd.]; Brief and Appendix on Behalf of
Appellee, Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967) (No. 395), 1967
WL 93641, at *7 (Mar. 20, 1967) (arguing that a judicial decision
overriding Virginia’s laws “would be judicial legislation in the
rawest sense of that term”) (quoting Loving v. Virginia, 147
S.E.2d 78, 82 (Va. 1966)) [hereinafter Va. Br. Loving v. Virginia].
14
Va. Br. Prince Edward Cnty. Sch. Bd., 1954 U.S. Briefs at
31 (“The Congress that proposed the Fourteenth Amendment did
(Continued on following page)
12

 4
government was wrong then, and the four States that
reprise modern-day versions of those failed arguments are wrong here.
“Every state legislator and executive and judicial
officer is solemnly committed by oath taken pursuant
to Art. VI, cl. 3, ‘to support this Constitution.’ ”15 The
purpose of that oath is to “preserve [the Federal
Constitution] in full force, in all its powers, and to
guard against resistance to or evasion of its authority,
on the part of a State . . . .”16
In fidelity to that oath, and to a comparable oath
under the Virginia Constitution,17 the Attorney General of Virginia changed the Commonwealth’s legal
position in Bostic v. Rainey, acknowledging that
Virginia’s ban on same-sex marriage violated the

not understand that it would be within the judicial power . . . to
construe the Amendment as abolishing school segregation of its
own force.”); Va. Br. Loving v. Virginia, 1967 WL 93641, at *5
(“[T]he legislative history of the Fourteenth Amendment conclusively establishes the clear understanding—both of the legislators who framed and adopted the Amendment and the
legislatures which ratified it—that the Fourteenth Amendment
had no application whatever to the anti-miscegenation statutes
of the various States and did not interfere in any way with the
power of the States to adopt such statutes.”).
15
Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1, 18 (1958).
16
Id. (quoting Ableman v. Booth, 62 U.S. (21 How.) 506, 524
(1859)).
17
Va. Const. art. II, § 7 (requiring all constitutional officers
to swear oath to “support the Constitution of the United States,
and the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia”).

 5
Fourteenth Amendment.18 After full adversarial
proceedings in which Virginia’s marriage ban was
vigorously defended by two circuit court clerks, the
Attorney General’s conclusion was vindicated by the
district court19 and the Fourth Circuit.20
And on the same day that Bostic took effect,
hours after this Court refused certiorari,21 the executive branch of Virginia State Government implemented the district court’s injunction requiring the
Commonwealth to license and recognize same-sex
22
marriages. Bostic also ended Virginia’s practice of
prohibiting same-sex spouses from adopting their
partner’s adopted or biological children.23 Virginia’s
Attorney General advised circuit court clerks that
laws providing benefits to a “husband and wife” must
18

Bostic v. Rainey, 970 F. Supp. 2d 456, 461 (E.D. Va.), aff ’d
sub nom. Bostic v. Schaefer, 760 F.3d 352 (4th Cir.), cert. denied,
190 L. Ed. 2d 140 (2014).
19
970 F. Supp. 2d at 483.
20
760 F.3d at 384.
21
190 L. Ed. 2d at 140.
22
See Exec. Order No. 30: Marriage Equality in the Commonwealth of Virginia (Oct. 7, 2014), available at https://governor.
virginia.gov/media/3341/eo-30-marriage-equality.pdf (ordering
executive branch agencies to “take all necessary and appropriate
legal measures to comply with” Bostic and to make health
benefits available to State employees’ same-sex spouses and
their dependents).
23
Press Release, Governor McAuliffe, McAuliffe Administration to Local Divisions of Social Services: Same-Sex Spouses
can now Legally Adopt (Oct. 10, 2014), https://governor.
virginia.gov/newsroom/newsarticle?articleId=6827.

 6
be construed under Bostic to apply equally to samesex spouses.24 And although bills failed in the 2015
Virginia legislature to repeal Virginia’s same-sexmarriage ban,25 to prohibit sexual-orientation discrimination in public employment,26 and to protect
27
gay people from housing discrimination, to our
knowledge, no State or local official in Virginia has
failed to comply with Bostic’s injunction.
Virginia’s State Registrar of Vital Records advises that, during the short period between October 6,
2014 (when Bostic took effect) through January 2015
(the most recently completed reporting period), 1,289
same-sex couples have wed, and same-sex weddings
account for between 6% and 8% of all marriages
celebrated in Virginia. The State Registrar has also
recorded six completed adoptions by same-sex spouses as well as nine birth certificates adding both
spouses’ names as the child’s legal parents.
24

2014 Op. Va. Att’y Gen. No. 14-074, at 3 n.14, available at
http://ag.virginia.gov/files/14-074_Frey.pdf.
25
See H.J. 492 (Va. 2015), http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/
legp604.exe?151+sum+HJ492; H.J. 493 (Va. 2015), http://lis.
virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+sum+HJ493; S.J. 213 (Va.
2015), http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+sum+SJ213;
S.J. 214 (Va. 2015), http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?
151+sum+SJ214.
26
S.B. 785 (Va. 2015), http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.
exe?151+sum+SB785; S.B. 1181 (Va. 2015), http://lis.virginia.gov/
cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+sum+SB1181.
27
H.B. 1454 (Va. 2015), http://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.
exe?151+sum+HB1454; S.B. 917 (Va. 2015), http://lis.virginia.gov/
cgi-bin/legp604.exe?151+sum+SB917.

 7
Virginia’s same-sex spouses and their children
can now travel to the thirty-seven other States in
which marriage equality is recognized without fear
that those States will treat them as legal strangers to
each other. But the Sixth Circuit’s ruling below leaves
them at risk of that consequence when they travel to
or through Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and Tennessee.
Virginia submits this amicus brief in support of
reversal because its experience on the wrong side of
Brown and Loving, and on the right side of this issue,
has taught us the truth of what the Court recognized
in Lawrence v. Texas: “those who drew and ratified
. . . the Fourteenth Amendment” chose not to specify
the full measure of freedom that it protected because
they “knew [that] times can blind us to certain truths
and later generations can see that laws once thought
necessary and proper in fact serve only to oppress.”28
------------------------------------------------------------------

SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT
1. Substantive Due Process. The fundamental
right at issue in this case is the right of two people to
marry—not the right of same-sex couples to marry.
The respondents seek to define the fundamental right
so narrowly that it disappears. They are wrong for
two interrelated reasons.

28

539 U.S. 558, 578-79 (2003).

 8
First, the Court’s marriage cases teach that the
right to marry cannot be restricted to the narrowest
context in which it was historically practiced. Otherwise, the Court would not have recognized the right
of interracial couples to marry, of a prisoner to marry,
or of a person to marry in spite of child-support
arrearages. Those cases cannot be distinguished on
the ground that they all involved different-sex couples. Such arguments that “it had not been done
before” would have restricted the fundamental right
to marry in those cases too. No case before Loving v.
29
Virginia, for instance, had ever involved an interracial couple who married.
Second, this Court has expressly rejected the
narrowest-historical-context theory of substantivedue-process analysis advocated by the respondents
and by the panel below. That theory was proposed by
Justice Scalia in footnote 6 of Michael H. v. Gerald
D.30 He based it on Bowers v. Hardwick,31 where the
Court (erroneously, as it turned out) held that the
Constitution did not protect private sexual conduct
between consenting adult men.32 But only Chief
Justice Rehnquist agreed with Justice Scalia’s theory.
And the theory was then repudiated by a majority of

29
30
31
32

388 U.S. at 1.
491 U.S. 110, 127 n.6 (1989) (Scalia, J.).
478 U.S. 186 (1986).
See 491 U.S. at 127 n.6.

 9
this Court in Planned Parenthood of Southeastern
Pennsylvania v. Casey.33
The Court did not silently revive that theory in
Washington v. Glucksberg.34 Glucksberg found no
fundamental right to assisted suicide anywhere in
700 years of Anglo-American history. But it distinguished cases involving established fundamental
rights, like the right to marry at issue here.
The coda to the swan song of footnote 6 came in
2003, when the Court in Lawrence overruled Bowers,
concluding that its earlier opinion had construed the
rights of gay persons too narrowly. Lawrence thereby
demolished the doctrinal foundation on which the
narrowest-historical-context theory had been constructed.
Rejecting the narrowest-historical-context theory
is crucial to getting the right answer here. Virginia
was on the wrong side of Loving and Brown precisely
because interracial-marriage bans and segregation
were commonplace when the Fourteenth Amendment
was drafted. Applying the narrowest-historicalcontext theory in those cases yielded the wrong
answer. The respondent States are committing the
same mistake here.

33
34

505 U.S. 833, 847-48 (1992).
521 U.S. 702 (1997).

 10
2. Equal Protection. Although strict scrutiny
applies because the same-sex-marriage bans substantially interfere with the fundamental right to marry,
the Equal Protection Clause independently calls for
heightened scrutiny because the bans discriminate on
the basis of sexual orientation and gender.
The bans facially discriminate against gay people
who wish to marry someone of their own gender. Gay
men and lesbians as a class satisfy the factors that
the Court has considered before in applying heightened scrutiny. The unifying principle behind those
factors is that courts should be suspicious of governmental classifications when they single out a disfavored minority group for discriminatory treatment.
The respondent States here cannot seriously maintain that there is no cause for suspicion when the
government discriminates against gay people.
Heightened scrutiny also applies because the
marriage bans classify persons according to gender: a
man may not marry a man, nor a woman another
woman. Express gender classifications such as these
trigger heightened scrutiny: despite that they apply
to men and women equally; without regard to the
existence of invidious motive; and even if the asserted
justification that “men and women are different” is
true. The whole point of heightened scrutiny is to
smoke out impermissible laws by requiring the government to give an exceedingly persuasive explanation
that an express gender classification is substantially
related to an important governmental objective.
Heightened scrutiny is particularly appropriate

 11
where, as here, the States invoke gender-based
stereotypes about “mothers and fathers” to justify
discriminating against same-sex couples and their
children.
3. Federalism. This Court’s federalism discussion in Part III of Windsor35 does not support denying
fundamental rights or equal protection to gay people.
Part III explained that § 3 of the Defense of Marriage
Act (DOMA) was suspect because it departed from
the normal rule that the Federal Government defers
to State-policy decisions involving domestic relations.
That suspicion dovetailed with the Court’s conclusion,
in Part IV, that DOMA violated equal-protection
principles implicit in the Due Process Clause of the
Fifth Amendment. In Windsor, then, the arguments
from federalism and equal protection pointed in the
same direction and to the same conclusion: § 3 was
unconstitutional.
In this case, by contrast, the respondents’ invocation of federalism is at odds with the rights of samesex couples and their children. Whenever these
arguments point in opposite directions, however, the
Fourteenth Amendment necessarily trumps federalism. Indeed, Windsor itself made clear that the
States’ power to regulate the incidents of marriage is
subject to constitutional limitations. And while
Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action36
35
36

United States v. Windsor, 133 S. Ct. 2675, 2689-93 (2013).
134 S. Ct. 1623 (2014).

 12
upheld a Michigan constitutional requirement that
State government discriminate neither in favor of nor
against particular groups, the respondent States here
do not practice such equality of treatment. Instead,
they enshrine unequal treatment of gay people in
their State constitutions.
The Constitution does not permit the “seeds of
37
. . . hate to be planted under the sanction of law.”
As with discrimination against other historically
disfavored groups, the “way to stop discrimination”
against gay people “is to stop discriminating” against
gay people.38
4. The need for a decisive ruling applying demanding scrutiny. In one sense, it makes little practical difference if the Court applies strict scrutiny
under substantive-due-process analysis, heightened
scrutiny under equal-protection analysis, or mere
rational-basis review. The States’ proffered justifications for their same-sex-marriage bans cannot survive rational-basis review, let alone the more
demanding standards. Windsor rejected the same
procreation-channeling and optimal-child-rearing
justifications, finding that Congress had “no legitimate purpose” in refusing to recognize valid same-sex
marriages.39 The States’ excuses for denying marriage
37

Plessy, 163 U.S. at 560 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1,
551 U.S. 701, 748 (2007) (Roberts, C.J.).
39
133 S. Ct. at 2696.
38

 13
equality are no stronger here. It is utterly implausible that permitting same-sex couples to marry and
raise their children in two-legal-parent households
will make different-sex couples less likely to marry
and raise their children in two-legal-parent households. Other courts have justifiably ridiculed such
excuses.
The Court should nevertheless apply more demanding scrutiny under both the Due Process and
Equal Protection Clauses. Loving was a watershed
ruling precisely because this Court invoked both
grounds. Invoking both grounds will give the Court’s
decision here the same synergy and resilience. By
combining the principle that the right to marry
belongs to “all individuals”40 with the principle that
the Equal Protection Clause prohibits discrimination
against gay people, the outcome is ineluctable.
A decisive ruling will also quell grumblings,
already audible in some quarters, that State and local
officials might invoke States’ rights to withhold
marriage equality, even if this Court rules that the
Fourteenth Amendment demands otherwise. Cases
like Cooper v. Aaron41 show that decisive rulings help
States overcome such urgings. And history teaches
that adherence to the commands of the Constitution
is indispensable to the protection of liberty for us all.

40
41

Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374, 384 (1978).
358 U.S. at 19-20.

 14
We revere the Founders and the drafters of the
Fourteenth Amendment because they were committed to the principle of equal justice under law, even if
they failed to live up to that principle in their respective generations. They may not have recognized that
due-process and equal-protection principles forbid:
segregated schools; restrictions on interracial marriage; the exclusion of women from preeminent military academies; or the criminalization of intimate
relations between consenting adults. But the scope of
the Fourteenth Amendment is governed by the words
they used, and by how their words have been authoritatively construed by this Court.
The rights at issue in this case are not new. What
is new is this generation’s recognition that substantivedue-process and equal-protection principles cannot
be reconciled with State-sanctioned discrimination
against gay people. Because the Constitution protects
a person’s selection of a life-partner of the same
gender, the Constitution likewise prohibits States
from denying to same-sex couples and their children
“the most important relation in life.”42
------------------------------------------------------------------

42

Maynard v. Hill, 125 U.S. 190, 205 (1888).

 15
ARGUMENT
I.

The fundamental right of marriage is
protected by the Due Process Clause and
cannot be restricted to the narrowest
context in which it was historically practiced.

To defeat the fundamental right to marry at issue
in this case, the respondent States seek to define the
right so narrowly that it disappears. They would
define it as the right of same-sex couples to marry,
not the right of two people to marry. But two interrelated reasons show why respondents’ cramped definition is untenable.
A. The Court’s marriage cases do not limit the right of marriage to the narrowest context in which it was historically
practiced.
First, this Court’s marriage cases teach that the
fundamental right of marriage is not limited to the
historical context in which it was practiced. Until
Virginia’s interracial-marriage ban was struck down
in Loving, such laws had been in effect “since the
colonial period.”43 Yet that history could not save
them. As Casey explained, the Fourteenth Amendment bars States from prohibiting interracial marriage despite that “interracial marriage was illegal in

43

Loving, 388 U.S. at 6.

 16
most States in the 19th century . . . .”44 There was
likewise no historical precedent to support the right
of prisoners or dead-beat parents to marry. Yet the
Court in Turner v. Safley held that prisoners are
entitled to wed.45 And it held in Zablocki v. Redhail
that States could not deny marriage to persons who
were behind in their child-support obligations.46 Thus,
most courts have correctly read Loving, Zablocki, and
Turner as requiring the freedom to marry to be defined at a broad level of generality, even if the context
in question, as here, was not one in which marriage
rights had been traditionally recognized or historically practiced.47

44

Planned Parenthood of Se. Pa. v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833,
847-48 (1992).
45
482 U.S. 78, 95-96 (1987).
46
434 U.S. at 388-91.
47
See, e.g., Bostic, 760 F.3d at 377 (“We . . . have no reason
to suspect that the Supreme Court would accord the choice to
marry someone of the same sex any less respect than the choice
to marry an opposite-sex individual who is of a different race,
owes child support, or is imprisoned. Accordingly, we decline . . .
to characterize the right at issue in this case as the right to
same-sex marriage rather than simply the right to marry.”);
Kitchen v. Herbert, 755 F.3d 1193, 1209 (10th Cir.) (“In numerous cases, the Court has discussed the right to marry at a
broader level of generality than would be consistent with
appellants’ argument.”), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 265 (2014); Latta
v. Otter, 771 F.3d 456, 477 (9th Cir. 2014) (Reinhardt, J., concurring) (“In each case, the Supreme Court referred to—and
considered the historical roots of—the general right of people to
marry, rather than a narrower right defined in terms of those
(Continued on following page)

 17
Those cases cannot be distinguished, as the panel
tried below, on the ground that they all involved
different-sex couples.48 No case before Loving involved
interracial marriage; no case before Zablocki involved
betrotheds behind in their child-support obligations;
and no case before Turner involved marriage to a
prisoner. But the Court nonetheless described each
case as involving the right to marry, a right “of fun49
damental importance for all individuals.”
Nor can those cases be restricted by sectarian
notions that marriage exists only for procreative
couples or purposes. Turner granted prisoners the
right to marry despite that incarceration prevented
consummation.50 The “important attributes of marriage” that remained included “expressions of emotional support and public commitment,” “spiritual
significance,” and considerable economic and noneconomic benefits.51 Although the Court noted that
most inmates expect to be released someday and so
may wed anticipating that the marriage “ultimately
will be fully consummated,”52 nothing in Turner
suggested that consummation, let alone procreation,

who sought the ability to exercise it.”), petitions for cert. filed
(U.S. Dec. 31, 2014, Jan. 2, 2015) (Nos. 14-765, 14-788).
48
DeBoer v. Snyder, 772 F.3d 388, 411-12 (6th Cir. 2014).
49
Zablocki, 434 U.S. at 384 (emphasis added).
50
482 U.S. at 95-96.
51
Id.
52
Id. at 96.

 18
was indispensable, or that inmates serving life-terms
could be prohibited from marrying.
But if there were any doubt whether a State
could make procreation a condition of marriage,
53
Griswold dispelled it. Griswold upheld the right of
married couples not to procreate.54 The Court described marriage in poetic terms that apply with
equal force to same-sex and different-sex marriages:
Marriage is a coming together for better or
for worse, hopefully enduring, and intimate
to the degree of being sacred. It is an association that promotes a way of life, not causes; a
harmony in living, not political faiths; a bilateral loyalty, not commercial or social projects. Yet it is an association for as noble a
purpose as any involved in our prior decisions.55
Justice Scalia put the point more bluntly in his
dissent in Lawrence: “what justification could there
possibly be for denying the benefits of marriage to
homosexual couples . . . ? Surely not the encouragement of procreation, since the sterile and the elderly
56
are allowed to marry.”

53
54
55
56

Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
Id. at 485-86.
Id. at 486.
539 U.S. at 605 (Scalia, J., dissenting).

 19
B. Casey and Lawrence rejected the narrowest-historical-context approach to
restricting established fundamental
rights.
A second basis requires rejecting the respondents’
effort to define the fundamental right here as the
narrow right of same-sex marriage, rather than the
broader right of two people to marry. This Court in
Casey squarely rejected the narrowest-historicalcontext approach, previously urged by Justice Scalia,
that would limit established fundamental rights to
the most specific level at which they were historically
practiced.
In footnote 6 of the plurality opinion in Michael
H. v. Gerald D., Justice Scalia proposed that fundamental rights under the Due Process Clause be
defined at “the most specific level at which a relevant
tradition protecting, or denying protection to, the
asserted right can be identified.”57 For that proposition he relied on Bowers v. Hardwick, where this
Court upheld Georgia’s “sodomy” law as applied to
consenting male adults in the privacy of their own
home.58 To demonstrate the historical basis for Bowers, Justice Scalia noted that when “the Fourteenth
Amendment was ratified all but 5 of the 37 States
had criminal sodomy laws, that all 50 of the States
had such laws prior to 1961, and that 24 States and
57
58

491 U.S. 110, 127 n.6 (1989) (Scalia, J.).
478 U.S. 186, 192 (1986).

 20
the District of Columbia continued to have them” in
1986, when Bowers was decided.59 Thus, he argued,
there was no “relevant tradition” and no fundamental
right protecting two adult men who wished to engage
in sexually intimate conduct in the privacy of their
own home.
But only Chief Justice Rehnquist joined footnote
6. The theory was rejected by Justice O’Connor, in a
concurring opinion joined by Justice Kennedy, who
explained that it “sketche[d] a mode of historical
analysis . . . that may be somewhat inconsistent with
our past decisions in this area.”61 “On occasion,” she
continued, “the Court has characterized relevant
traditions protecting asserted rights at levels of
generality that might not be ‘the most specific level’
available.”62 She gave Loving and Turner as examples.63 Justice O’Connor therefore rejected “the prior
imposition of a single mode of historical analysis.”64
60

Justices O’Connor and Kennedy were not alone;
the three dissenting justices in Michael H. likewise
rejected footnote 6, explaining that limiting rights to
those “traditionally protected by our society” would
59
60
61

491 U.S. at 127 n.6.
Id. at 113.
Id. at 132 (O’Connor, J., joined by Kennedy, J., concur-

ring).
62
63
64

Id.
Id.
Id.

 21
limit substantive-due-process protection to only those
interests “already protected by a majority of the
States,” a position that would “mock[ ] those who,
with care and purpose, wrote the Fourteenth
Amendment.”65
The separate views rejecting footnote 6 in Michael H. coalesced in Casey, where a full majority of
the Court explicitly rejected the narrowest-historicalcontext theory. In a joint opinion by Justices
O’Connor, Kennedy and Souter, in which Justices
Blackmun and Stevens joined, the Court explained:
It is . . . tempting . . . to suppose that the Due
Process Clause protects only those practices,
defined at the most specific level, that were
protected against government interference
. . . when the Fourteenth Amendment was
ratified. See Michael H. v. Gerald D., 491
U.S. 110, 127-128, n.6 [ ] (1989) (opinion of
SCALIA, J.). But such a view would be inconsistent with our law. . . . Marriage is mentioned nowhere in the Bill of Rights and
interracial marriage was illegal in most
States in the 19th century, but the Court was
no doubt correct in finding it to be an aspect
of liberty protected against state interference
by the substantive component of the Due
Process Clause in Loving . . . .66

65

Id. at 141 (Brennan, J., joined by Marshall and
Blackmun, JJ., dissenting).
66
505 U.S. at 847-48 (emphasis added).

 22
Justice Scalia himself later acknowledged that
his narrowest-historical-context theory had not
gained traction. In dissenting from the Court’s holding that Virginia could not exclude women from VMI,
he wrote, “[i]t is my position that the term ‘fundamental rights’ should be limited to ‘interest[s] traditionally protected by our society,’ Michael H. [ ]
(plurality opinion of SCALIA, J.); but the Court has
67
not accepted that view . . . .”
The epilogue in the story of the demise of footnote 6 then came in 2003, when Lawrence overruled
Bowers, the primary authority on which Justice
Scalia had based the narrowest-historical-context
theory. Writing for the majority in Lawrence, Justice
Kennedy explained that the Court had erred when it
framed the question in Bowers too narrowly as
“whether the Federal Constitution confers a fundamental right upon homosexuals to engage in sodomy
. . . .”68 “That statement, we now conclude, discloses
the Court’s own failure to appreciate the extent of the
liberty at stake.”69 Those who define the right at issue
here as the right to same-sex marriage make the
70
same mistake.
67

United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. at 567-68 (emphasis
added).
68
539 U.S. at 566.
69
Id. at 567.
70
To his credit, the late Justice Powell, another Virginian
the Commonwealth proudly claims as her own, acknowledged in
retirement that he erred in casting the fifth vote in Bowers. See
(Continued on following page)

 23
Nothing in Washington v. Glucksberg71 revivified
the narrowest-historical-context theory that had been
interred by Casey. Glucksberg declined to recognize a
fundamental right to assisted suicide, finding no such
right anywhere in “700 years [of ] Anglo-American”
72
history. Glucksberg explained that the Court’s
“substantive-due-process analysis has two primary
features”:73
First, . . . that the Due Process Clause specially protects those fundamental rights and
liberties which are, objectively, deeply rooted
in this Nation’s history and tradition, and
implicit in the concept of ordered liberty,
such that neither liberty nor justice would
exist if they were sacrificed. Second, we have
required in substantive-due-process cases a
careful description of the asserted fundamental liberty interest. Our Nation’s history,
legal traditions, and practices thus provide
the crucial guideposts for responsible
John C. Jeffries, Jr., Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr. 530 (1994).
Before the vote, Powell confided to his law clerk (whom he did
not know was gay) that “I don’t believe I’ve ever met a homosexual.” Id. “ ‘Certainly you have,’ came back the reply, ‘but you just
don’t know that they are.’ ” Id. at 521. Notably, countless Americans have modified their views about marriage equality after
learning that a friend, neighbor, colleague, or family member is
gay. See generally Michael J. LaCour & Donald P. Green, When
contact changes minds: An experiment on transmission of
support for gay equality, 346 Science 1366 (2014).
71
521 U.S. 702 (1997).
72
Id. at 711.
73
Id. at 720.

 24
decisionmaking that direct and restrain our
exposition of the Due Process Clause.74
But it reads too much into the “deeply rooted”
and “careful description” language in Glucksberg to
conclude that the majority intended, without saying
so, to restore Justice Scalia’s theory from Michael H.
and to overrule Casey’s rejection of that same theory.
Glucksberg, rather, distinguished between asserted
fundamental rights like assisted suicide, which
lacked any basis in history or case law, and established fundamental rights, like the right to marry,
which had been repeatedly identified by the Court as
fundamental without regard to the narrowest context
in which they had been practiced. Glucksberg listed
such established rights in footnote 19, including the
right to marry at issue in Loving and Turner.75 The
Court then distinguished such established rights
from asserted ones (like assisted suicide) that lacked
such pedigree.76 Glucksberg only distinguished Casey;
it did not overrule it. Notably, the handful of judges
who have invoked Glucksberg to define marriage
narrowly have uniformly ignored that this Court has
74

Id. at 720-21 (citations and quotations omitted; emphasis
added).
75
Id. at 727 n.19.
76
Id. at 727-28 (“That many of the rights and liberties
protected by the Due Process Clause sound in personal autonomy does not warrant the sweeping conclusion that any and all
important, intimate, and personal decisions are so protected,
and Casey did not suggest otherwise.”) (citation omitted; emphasis added).

 25
not applied the narrowest-historical-context approach
to restrict established rights—like the right to marry—
that had already been recognized as fundamental.77
Applying the correct legal doctrine is crucial to
getting the right answer. Virginia mistakenly applied
the narrowest-historical-context approach when it
defended segregation in Brown, anti-miscegenation
laws in Loving, and the exclusion of women from
VMI, all practices with a long tradition and historical
pedigree. Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and Tennessee
are simply repeating that mistake here.
II.

The Equal Protection Clause prohibits
States from denying marriage rights to
same-sex couples and from refusing to
recognize lawful out-of-state marriages.

Because the respondents’ same-sex-marriage
bans deprive citizens of the fundamental right to
marry, the bans are subject to strict scrutiny.78 Even
apart from substantive-due-process analysis, however,

77

See DeBoer, 772 F.3d at 411 (opinion of Sutton, J., joined
by Cook, J.); Bostic, 760 F.3d at 389 (Niemeyer, J., dissenting);
Kitchen, 755 F.3d at 1234 (Kelly, J., dissenting in part);
Robicheaux v. Caldwell, 2 F. Supp. 3d 910, 922 (E.D. La. 2014)
(opinion of Feldman, J.), cert. before judgment denied, 190
L. Ed. 2d 890 (2015).
78
Zablocki, 434 U.S. at 383; Bostic, 760 F.3d at 375 n.6, 377;
Kitchen, 755 F.3d at 1218; Latta, 771 F.3d at 477 (Reinhardt, J.,
concurring).

 26
the Equal Protection Clause would mandate at least
heightened scrutiny.
A. Same-sex-marriage bans are subject to
heightened scrutiny under the Equal
Protection Clause because they classify
persons based on their sexual orientation, an inherently suspect classification.
The Court should apply heightened scrutiny
because the bans facially discriminate on the basis of
sexual orientation, and because gay men and lesbians, as a class, satisfy the factors this Court has
considered in applying heightened scrutiny—whether
the group:
•

has experienced a “history of purposeful
unequal treatment”;79

•

has been “subjected to unique disabilities on the basis of stereotyped characteristics not truly indicative of their
abilities”;80

79

Mass. Bd. of Ret. v. Murgia, 427 U.S. 307, 313 (1976) (per
curiam) (quoting San Antonio Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Rodriguez, 411
U.S. 1, 28 (1973)).
80
Id.

 27
•

has “obvious, immutable, or distinguishing characteristics that define them as a
discrete group”;81 or

•

has been “relegated to such a position of
political powerlessness” as to warrant
“extraordinary protection from the majoritarian political process.”82

It is difficult to improve on the Government’s discussion of those considerations in United States v. Windsor, where it explained at length how gay people as a
83
class satisfy all four factors.
Yet a single unifying principle underlies all four
considerations. Courts apply heightened and strict
scrutiny when they are properly suspicious of laws
that discriminate based on traits that are often the
subject of stereotypes and prejudice—traits like race,
national origin, gender, alienage, and illegitimacy. We
put a heavy burden on government to justify laws
that rely on suspect classifications like those.
It defies credulity to argue that courts have no
reason to be similarly suspicious of laws that discriminate against gay people. As Judge Posner recognized,
“homosexuals are among the most stigmatized,
81

Bowen v. Gilliard, 483 U.S. 587, 602 (1987) (quoting Lyng
v. Castillo, 477 U.S. 635, 638 (1986)).
82
Murgia, 427 U.S. at 313 (quoting Rodriguez, 411 U.S. at
28).
83
U.S. Merits Br. 16-36, United States v. Windsor, 133 S. Ct.
2675 (2013) (No. 12-307).

 28
misunderstood, and discriminated-against minorities
in the history of the world . . . .”84 Laws targeting gay
people for unfavorable treatment clearly warrant
judicial skepticism.
B. Heightened scrutiny is also warranted
because the marriage bans explicitly
turn on the participants’ gender.
The Equal Protection Clause also calls for
heightened scrutiny because the marriage bans
expressly classify persons by gender: a man may not
marry a man, nor a woman another woman.85
The gender classification does not disappear
because the marriage ban applies to men and women
equally. Virginia maintained in Loving that its interracial-marriage ban did not discriminate on the basis
of race because “its miscegenation statutes punish
equally both the white and the Negro participants
86
. . . .” The Court disagreed, stating that “the fact of
equal application does not immunize the statute from
the very heavy burden of justification which the
84

Baskin v. Bogan, 766 F.3d 648, 658 (7th Cir.), cert. denied,
135 S. Ct. 316 (2014).
85
See, e.g., Ky. Const. § 233A (enacted 2004) (“Only a
marriage between one man and one woman shall be valid or
recognized . . . .”); Mich. Const. art. I, § 25 (enacted 2004) (“one
man and one woman”); Ohio Const. art. XV, § 11 (enacted 2004)
(“one man and one woman”); Tenn. Const. art. XI, § 18 (enacted
2006) (“one (1) man and one (1) woman”).
86
388 U.S. at 8.

 29
Fourteenth Amendment has traditionally required of
state statutes drawn according to race.”87
Just as Virginia’s interracial-marriage ban
applied equally to blacks and whites but was “drawn
according to race,” the respondents’ same-sexmarriage bans apply equally to men and women but
are drawn according to gender. It does not matter
that the bans treat men and women equally any more
than it matters that a peremptory challenge can be
used equally (and unconstitutionally) to remove a
88
male or female juror.
Heightened scrutiny smokes out the improper
uses of gender. It applies whenever the government
expressly classifies by gender, regardless of whether
the use of gender was actually motivated by gender
bias, homophobia, or a legitimate purpose. Determining whether an important interest exists is the whole
point of the exercise. In doctrinal terms, “the absence
of a malevolent motive does not convert a facially
discriminatory policy into a neutral policy with a
discriminatory effect.”89 So even assuming that the
respondents’ marriage bans were not actually intended to discriminate against men or women as a class,
87

Id. at 9 (emphasis added).
See J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B., 511 U.S. 127, 139 n.11
(1994) (applying heightened scrutiny to peremptory strikes of
men that resulted in an all-woman jury).
89
Int’l Union, United Auto., Aerospace & Agric. Implement
Workers of Am., UAW v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187,
199 (1991).
88

 30
it “does not undermine the conclusion that an explicit
gender-based policy is sex discrimination” that triggers heightened scrutiny.90
That heightened scrutiny should apply is reinforced by the fact that marriage-ban proponents
emphasize the different traits they say mothers and
fathers bring to parenting. Michigan, for example,
insists that “[m]en and women are different, moms
91
and dad are not interchangeable,” “different sexes
bring different contributions to parenting,”92 and
“there are different benefits to mothering versus
fathering.”93 The insinuation that same-sex parents
cannot be as effective as different-sex parents suffers
from the same prejudice ferreted out in Stanley v.
Illinois, where the Court rejected the irrebuttable
presumption that unmarried fathers were “unqualified to raise their children.”94
But the Court need not evaluate the truth of
Michigan’s gender-loaded parenting claims to know
that they trigger heightened scrutiny: heightened
90

Id. at 200.
E.g., Respondents’ (Michigan’s) Br. in Supp. of Pet’n for
Writ of Cert. at 27, DeBoer v. Snyder, No. 14-571.
92
Id. at 28.
93
Id. at 28 (quotation omitted).
94
405 U.S. 645, 646 (1972). The Constitution prohibits a
State from “conclusively presum[ing] that any particular
unmarried father [is] unfit to raise his child; the Due Process
Clause require[s] a more individualized determination.” Cleveland Bd. of Educ. v. LaFleur, 414 U.S. 632, 645 (1974).
91

 31
scrutiny applies even when gender-based stereotypes
are true. That is why even if all of the “inherent
differences” between men and women had been
correctly discerned by Virginia, it would not have
justified excluding women from VMI,95 and why the
government may not tie employee benefits or contributions to gender-based mortality tables, despite the
truism that women generally outlive men.96 We apply
heightened scrutiny precisely because our distrust of
gender-based classifications can be overcome only by
“an exceedingly persuasive justification” showing “at
least that the classification serves important governmental objectives and that the discriminatory means
employed are substantially related to the achievement of those objectives.”97
Heightened scrutiny thus roots out the prejudice
inherent in the “baggage of sexual stereotypes.”98
Judge Berzon hit the nail on the head: “[i]t should
95

United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. at 533.
Ariz. Governing Comm. for Tax Deferred Annuity &
Deferred Comp. Plans v. Norris, 463 U.S. 1073, 1084-85 (1983)
(“The use of sex-segregated actuarial tables to calculate retirement benefits violates Title VII whether or not the tables reflect
an accurate prediction of the longevity of women as a class, for
under the statute ‘[even] a true generalization about [a] class’
cannot justify class-based treatment.”) (quoting L.A. Dep’t of
Water & Power v. Manhart, 435 U.S. 702, 708 (1978)).
97
United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. at 524 (quoting Miss.
Univ. for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718, 724 (1982)).
98
Califano v. Westcott, 443 U.S. 76, 89 (1979) (quoting Orr
v. Orr, 440 U.S. 268, 283 (1979)).
96

 32
be obvious that the stereotypic notion ‘that the two
sexes bring different talents to the parenting enterprise,’ runs directly afoul of the Supreme Court’s
repeated disapproval of ‘generalizations about ‘the
way women are,’ or ‘the way men are,’ ’ as a basis for
99
legislation.”
III. Federalism is not a valid basis on which
to withhold fundamental rights and deny
equal protection.
Marriage-ban defenders invoke States’ rights,
citing Part III of Windsor,100 but they fundamentally
misunderstand the function of the federalism discussion in that case. In Windsor, the argument that § 3
101
of the Defense of Marriage Act violated federalism
principles pointed to the same conclusion as the
argument that DOMA violated the due-process rights
of lawfully married same-sex couples; the two arguments worked in tandem. By defining marriage to be
between a man and a woman, Congress invaded an
area that by “history and tradition . . . has been
treated as being within the authority and realm of
the separate States.”102 That mark of invalidity dovetailed with the Court’s conclusion, in Part IV, that
99

Latta, 771 F.3d at 491 (Berzon, J., concurring) (quoting
United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. at 550).
100
133 S. Ct. at 2689.
101
1 U.S.C. § 7.
102
133 S. Ct. at 2689-90.

 33
“DOMA . . . violates basic due process and equal
protection principles applicable to the Federal Government.”103
But in this case, the two arguments conflict: the
States’ claim here that they should be free to ban
same-sex marriage is irreconcilably opposed to the
equal-protection and due-process rights of same-sex
couples, who seek the same marriage rights enjoyed
by different-sex couples. Unlike in Windsor, then,
where federalism and fundamental-rights analysis
pointed to the same conclusion, here they are in
tension.
But it is indisputable that whenever such conflicts arise, the Fourteenth Amendment trumps
federalism. The Fourteenth Amendment was “specifically designed as an expansion of federal power and
104
an intrusion on state sovereignty.” Thus, in Cooper
v. Aaron, the Court rejected Arkansas’s recalcitrance
in implementing desegregation after Brown v. Board,
explaining that even though “public education is
primarily the concern of the States . . . such responsibilities, like all other state activity, must be exercised
consistently with federal constitutional requirements
as they apply to state action.”105

103
104
105

Id. at 2693.
City of Rome v. United States, 446 U.S. 156, 179 (1980).
358 U.S. at 19.

 34
Windsor’s federalism discussion makes the same
point. Writing for the majority, Justice Kennedy
explained that “State laws defining and regulating
marriage, of course, must respect the constitutional
rights of persons.”106 He cited Loving for that point.107
A few paragraphs later, the Court said that “the longestablished precept” that marriage laws may vary
from one State to another is “subject to constitutional
108
In other words, if the Fourteenth
guarantees.”
Amendment prevents States from withholding the
rights of marriage from same-sex couples, federalism
cannot save such laws from being “discard[ed] . . .
into the ash heap of history.”109
The panel majority below erred in relying on
Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action,110
where there was no conflict between Fourteenth
Amendment rights and federalism. Schuette rejected
an equal-protection challenge to a provision in
Michigan’s constitution that the State “shall not
discriminate against, or grant preferential treatment
to, any individual or group on the basis of race, sex,
color, ethnicity, or national origin in the operation

106

133 S. Ct. at 2691 (emphasis added).
Id.
108
Id. at 2692.
109
Whitewood v. Wolf, 992 F. Supp. 2d 410, 431 (M.D. Pa.),
order aff’d, appeal dismissed, No. 13-3048 (3d Cir. July 3, 2014).
110
134 S. Ct. 1623 (2014). See DeBoer, 772 F.3d at 409
(discussing Schuette).
107

 35
of public employment, public education, or public
contracting.”111 In upholding Michigan’s ability to
prevent discrimination—whether for or against
specific groups—the majority said that “[d]eliberative
debate on sensitive issues such as racial preferences”
112
should not be “remov[ed] . . . from the voters’ reach.”
But Schuette made clear that the provision at issue
there did not authorize discrimination that the Federal Constitution forbids. The majority cautioned, for
instance, that “when hurt or injury is inflicted on
racial minorities by the encouragement or command
of laws or other state action, the Constitution requires
redress by the courts . . . .”113
Unlike the marriage bans at issue here, which
make governmental discrimination against gay people
part of each State’s constitution, the Michigan provision in Schuette prohibited discrimination, whether
for or against traditionally suspect groups. Schuette
would be analogous here only if the States in this
case both banned discrimination against gay people
and prohibited governmental preferences that favored
them. But if that were true, then Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, and Tennessee would license and recognize
same-sex marriage equally with different-sex marriage. Instead, they discriminate against same-sex
couples, treating them as less than full citizens.
Nothing in Schuette authorizes State-sanctioned
111
112
113

134 S. Ct. at 1629.
Id. at 1638.
Id. at 1637 (emphasis added).

 36
discrimination in the guise of letting the voters decide
whether to deny their fellow citizens fundamental
rights or “the equal protection of the laws.”114
We should have heeded the first Justice Harlan
when he warned in Plessy that “the common government of all [should] not permit the seeds of . . . hate to
be planted under the sanction of law.”115 His wise
counsel rings true today. “The way to stop discrimination” against gay people “is to stop discriminating”
against gay people.116
IV. Even though the marriage bans fail the
rational-basis test, the Court should hold
that the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses demand more exacting scrutiny here.
In one sense, it makes little practical difference if
the Court applies strict scrutiny under substantivedue-process analysis, heightened scrutiny under
equal-protection analysis, or mere rational-basis
review. The States’ proffered justifications for their
same-sex-marriage bans cannot survive the rationalbasis test, let alone the more demanding standards.

114

U.S. Const. amend. XIV, § 1.
163 U.S. at 560 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
116
Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1,
551 U.S. 701, 748 (2007) (Roberts, C.J.).
115

 37
“Every one knows” what these marriage bans had
as their “purpose,”117 but even accepting the fiction
that these States banned same-sex marriage to
encourage “the raising of children by their biological
parents” or “childrearing in a setting with both a
118
mother and a father,” those rationales were rejected
in Windsor. The same justifications were defended by
the dissenting court-of-appeals judge in Windsor119
and pressed forcefully by the congressmen who took
up those claims in this Court.120 And yet Windsor held
that “no legitimate purpose” could justify DOMA’s
refusal to recognize same-sex marriages from jurisdictions where they were lawful.121
Those same excuses are no more persuasive this
time. It is utterly implausible that permitting samesex couples to marry and raise their children in
two-legal-parent households will make differentsex couples less likely to marry and raise their children in two-legal-parent households.122 If protecting
117

Plessy, 163 U.S. at 557 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
Windsor v. United States, 699 F.3d 169, 198 (2d Cir. 2012)
(Straub, J., dissenting in part), aff ’d, 133 S. Ct. 2675 (2013).
119
Id.
120
BLAG Merits Br. 10-11, 46-47, United States v. Windsor,
133 S. Ct. 2675 (2013) (No. 12-307).
121
133 S. Ct. at 2696.
122
See, e.g., Bostic, 760 F.3d at 383 (“Allowing infertile
opposite-sex couples to marry does nothing to further the
government’s goal of channeling procreative conduct into
marriage. Thus, excluding same-sex couples from marriage due
to their inability to have unintended children makes little
(Continued on following page)
118

 38
families and children were really the goal, these
States would permit same-sex spouses to adopt
children into their families, not obstruct their ability
to do so, as Virginia did until Bostic ended that practice.123 The Ninth Circuit was right that “[r]aising
children is hard; marriage supports same-sex couples
in parenting their children, just as it does oppositesex couples.”124 And the Seventh Circuit was justified
in its acid-tongued rejection of the States’ rationale as
sense.”); id. at 384 (“There is absolutely no reason to suspect
that prohibiting same-sex couples from marrying and refusing to
recognize their out-of-state marriages will cause same-sex
couples to raise fewer children or impel married opposite-sex
couples to raise more children.”); Kitchen, 755 F.3d at 1223 (“We
emphatically agree with the numerous cases decided since
Windsor that it is wholly illogical to believe that state recognition of the love and commitment between same-sex couples will
alter the most intimate and personal decisions of opposite-sex
couples.”) (collecting cases); Baskin, 766 F.3d at 669 (“[W]hile
many heterosexuals (though in America a rapidly diminishing
number) disapprove of same-sex marriage, there is no way they
are going to be hurt by it in a way that the law would take
cognizance of.”).
123
See Bostic, 760 F.3d at 382 (“Although same-sex couples
cannot procreate accidentally, they can and do have children via
other methods . . . . [A]s of the 2010 U.S. Census, more than
2500 same-sex couples were raising more than 4000 children
under the age of eighteen in Virginia. The Virginia Marriage
Laws therefore increase the number of children raised by
unmarried parents.”); Latta, 771 F.3d at 472-73 (“In extending
the benefits of marriage only to people who have the capacity to
procreate, while denying those same benefits to people who
already have children, Idaho and Nevada materially harm and
demean same-sex couples and their children.”).
124
Latta, 771 F.3d at 471.

 39
being “so full of holes that it cannot be taken seriously.”125 Just as in Romer, the “breadth” of the State
constitutional bans here “is so far removed from [the
States’] particular justifications that [it is] impossible
to credit them.”126 Rational-basis review alone invalidates the marriage bans because they serve no “proper legislative end but to make [gay people] unequal to
everyone else.”127
Yet the Court should take this opportunity to
hold that significantly higher scrutiny applies. Loving
is a beacon today because it rested on both substantive-due-process and equal-protection principles.128 It
showed that the right to marry is fundamental under
the Due Process Clause despite that the case “arose
in the context of racial discrimination.”129 And it
showed that anti-miscegenation laws were intolerable
under the Equal Protection Clause despite that
“interracial marriage was illegal in most States”130
when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted.
Combining both principles made the whole greater
than the sum of its parts.
Invoking more demanding scrutiny under both
clauses here will give this decision the same synergy
125
126
127
128
129
130

Baskin, 766 F.3d at 656.
Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 635 (1996).
Id.
388 U.S. at 2, 11-12.
Zablocki, 434 U.S. at 384.
Casey, 505 U.S. at 847-48.

 40
and resilience. By combining the principle “that the
right to marry is of fundamental importance for all
individuals”131 with the Equal Protection Clause’s
prohibition of unjustified discrimination against gay
people, the outcome is ineluctable.
A decisive ruling here also will help mute the
siren song calling some individuals to think that
States’ rights can somehow justify disobeying this
132
Court when it protects fundamental rights. Some
State and local governments were misled down similar
paths of resistance before; cases like Cooper v. Aaron
show that decisive rulings discourage such departures from the rule of law.133 And history teaches that
adherence “to the command of the Constitution [is]
131

Zablocki, 434 U.S. at 384 (emphasis added).
E.g., Kim Chandler, Moore’s Supporters in 10 Commandments Fight Return to Back Him on Gay Marriage Stand,
Daily Reporter (Feb. 25, 2015), http://www.greenfieldreporter.com/
view/story/cc7f865e4e674884994871a6e672080c/AL—Gay-MarriageAlabama (“Supporters who rallied around Alabama Chief
Justice Roy Moore during his 2003 Ten Commandments fight
returned to Alabama Wednesday to praise his stand on gay
marriage . . . . The Rev. Patrick Mahoney, leader of the Christian
Defense Coalition, said . . . Moore had embraced ‘the very
principles of this nation in resisting unjust federal orders.’ ”).
133
E.g., Allen v. Prince Edward Cnty. Sch. Bd., 266 F.2d 507
(4th Cir.) (“[T]he total inaction of the School Board speak[s] so
loudly that no argument is needed to show that the last delaying
order of the District Judge cannot be approved, and that it has
become necessary for this Court to give specific directions as to
what must be done. This becomes even more clear in view of the
decision of the Supreme Court . . . in Cooper v. Aaron . . . .”), cert.
denied, 361 U.S. 830 (1959).
132

 41
indispensable for the protection of the freedoms
guaranteed by our fundamental charter for all of
us.”134
***
We have learned that lesson in Virginia. Those
who drafted and ratified the Fourteenth Amendment
might not have thought that it prohibited a State
from practicing segregation or from barring interracial marriage, even though we take for granted today
that it does. Hypothesizing what the drafters might
have thought about same-sex marriage likewise asks
the wrong question. The scope of that Amendment is
not governed by what its draftsmen might have
thought, but by what they wrote, and by how their
words have been authoritatively construed by this
Court. We revere the Founders because their words
and ideals are timeless, even if they failed to practice
the full meaning of those words and ideals in their
own day.
“The Constitution created a government dedi135
cated to equal justice under law.” That principle is
not new. What is new is this generation’s recognition
that that principle cannot be reconciled with governmental discrimination against gay people. Selecting a life-partner of the same gender is a “choice[ ]

134
135

Cooper, 358 U.S. at 19-20 (emphasis added).
Id. at 19.

 42
the Constitution protects.”136 So too, the principle of
equal justice under law prohibits States from denying
to gay couples and their children “the most important
relation in life.”137
------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION
The judgment of the court of appeals should be
reversed, restoring the injunctions and declaratory
judgments issued by the district courts in Kentucky,138
Michigan,139 Ohio,140 and Tennessee,141 and prohibiting

136

Windsor, 133 S. Ct. at 2694.
Maynard v. Hill, 125 U.S. 190, 205 (1888).
138
Bourke v. Beshear, 996 F. Supp. 2d 542, 557 (W.D. Ky.
2014); Love v. Beshear, 989 F. Supp. 2d 536, 550 (W.D. Ky. 2014).
139
DeBoer v. Snyder, 973 F. Supp. 2d 757, 775 (E.D. Mich.
2014).
140
Henry v. Himes, 14 F. Supp. 3d 1036, 1061 (S.D. Ohio
2014); Obergefell v. Wymyslo, 962 F. Supp. 2d 968, 997-98 (S.D.
Ohio 2013).
141
Tanco v. Haslam, 7 F. Supp. 3d 759, 772 (M.D. Tenn.
2014).
137

 43
each of those States from denying marriage rights to
same-sex couples.
Respectfully submitted,
MARK R. HERRING
Attorney General of Virginia
CYNTHIA E. HUDSON
Chief Deputy Attorney
General
CYNTHIA V. BAILEY
Deputy Attorney General
ALLYSON K. TYSINGER
Senior Assistant Attorney
General
CARLY L. RUSH
Assistant Attorney General
March 5, 2015

STUART A. RAPHAEL*
Solicitor General of Virginia
*Counsel of Record
TREVOR S. COX
Deputy Solicitor General
OFFICE OF THE
ATTORNEY GENERAL
900 East Main Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
(804) 786-7240
sraphael@oag.state.va.us